Visitor Use Research Articles

Trail impact monitoring in Rocky Mountain National Park, USA

Abstract. This paper examines impacts of increased visitation leading to human trampling of vegetation and soil along several trails in Rocky Mountain National Park (RMNP) to understand how abiotic factors and level of use can influence trail conditions. RMNP is one of the most visited national parks in the USA, with 3.3 million visitors in 2012 across 1075 km2 and 571 km of hiking trails. 95 % of the park is designated wilderness, making the balance between preservation and visitor use challenging. This research involves the application of trail condition assessments to 56 km of trails to determine prevailing factors and what, if any, connection between them exist. The study looked at a variety of inventory and impact indicators and standards to determine their importance and to develop a baseline condition of trails. The data can be used for future comparison and evaluation of development trends. We found that trail widening (mean trail width 88.9 cm) and soil loss (cross-sectional area 172.7 cm2) are the most visible effects of trail degradation. Further statistical analyses of data identified the role and influence of various factors (e.g., use level and topography). Insights into the influence of these factors can lead to the selection of appropriate management measures to avoid or minimize negative consequences from increased visitation.

The influence of visitor use levels on visitor spatial behavior in off-trail areas of dispersed recreation use

A variety of social and ecological factors influence the level and extent of ecological change that occurs in a park or protected area. Understanding these factors and how they are interrelated can help managers prevent undesirable ecological impacts, especially in areas without formal trails and visitor sites. This study examines the relationship between levels of visitor use and spatial patterns of visitor behavior at a variety of backcountry recreation destinations. Current assumptions in both the literature and simulation modeling efforts assume that visitor behavior either does not change with use level or that visitors are more likely to disperse at high levels of visitor use. Using visitor counts and GPS tracks of visitor behavior in locations where visitors could disperse off-trail, we found that visitors' spatial behavior does vary with visitor use level in some recreation settings, however the patterns of visitor behavior observed in this study are sometimes contrary to current generalizations. When visitor behavior does vary with use level, visitors are dispersing more at low levels of visitor use not when use level is high. Overall, these findings suggest that in certain situations the amount of visitor use at a recreation destination may be a less important driver of ecological change than visitor behavior.

A Review and Synthesis of Recreation Ecology Research Supporting Carrying Capacity and Visitor Use Management Decisionmaking

A Review and Synthesis of Recreation Ecology Research Supporting Carrying Capacity and Visitor Use Management Decisionmaking

Sustainability of higher educational buildings

Despite greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions of Egypt represent nearly 1 percent of the World's GHG emissions, but according to IPCCC, Egypt is one of the nations that will be heavily affected by the impact of climate change risks. The global CO2 emissions from different sectors, buildings are forming the highest portion (about 5.5 GtCO2-eq). Electricity consumption in public buildings, including administrative, educational and health buildings (9 percent) is the 2nd largest type after residential buildings (40 percent). The electrical energy per person in Egypt has increased from 1245 kWh in 2001/2002 to 1950 kWh in 2012/2013; an increase of 57 percent. This resulted in a colossal amount of CO2 emitted into the atmosphere. Thus, improving energy performance in residential and higher education buildings will have a significant impact on the reduction of electrical energy use, improve recourses efficiency and the nation's economic growth and footprint. Energy consumption in education buildings depends, mainly on the building's activities, time of use and influx of visitors and students and academic staff as well as the academic terms whether in winter summer. Retrofitting measures are important to reduce energy consumption in higher educational buildings and cooling requirements in hot climate. One of the most important measures in the retrofitting process of the building envelop, including its roof are mainly glazing type and characteristics, and walls’ thermal insulation. This paper addresses sustainability measures of the Faculty of Engineering Campus – Department of Architectural Engineering building at Cairo University, Egypt. The objective is to set the baseline assessment of the building’ energy use and compared it with its energy performance after retrofitting measures and simulation. Results show that applying these retrofitting measures; energy use has been reduced by 15 percent from the baseline (BAU) energy use of an average of 14.6 kWh/m2 yearly.

Conceptual Framework for Collaboratively Managing Coupled Human and Natural Systems under Climate Change Uncertainty

<p class="1Body">A collaborative decision making (CDM) framework is developed for managing coupled human and natural systems (CHANS) over time when managers are uncertain about one or more drivers of system behavior. The framework incorporates six elements: (1) framing the problem; (2) selecting management objectives; (3) choosing scenarios for future changes in one or more drivers of system behavior; (4) formulating alternative management actions; (5) estimating the values of management objectives and determining their compliance with maximum or minimum acceptable levels; and (6) determining preferred management actions for each driver scenario and time period. Application of the framework is illustrated for a hypothetical case study that determines preferred management actions over time for a highway corridor through a hypothetical national park based on four management objectives: minimizing soil erosion and vegetative losses along hiking trails in the highway corridor; and minimizing traffic congestion on the highway and visitor congestion on hiking trails in the highway corridor. Uncertainty about future visitor use of the highway corridor is taken into account by specifying low, medium, and high visitor use scenarios for the corridor. Preferred management actions for each visitor use scenario within time periods are determined using the fuzzy Technique for Order Preference by Similarity of Ideal Solution to rank management actions for each visitor use scenario. The preferred management action across visitor use scenarios for each time period is determined by applying the minimax regret criterion to maximum loss indices for the preferred management actions for visitor use scenarios.</p>

The ecological implications of visitor transportation in parks and protected areas: Examples from research in US National Parks

The demand for recreation and nature-based tourism experiences in parks and protected areas continues to grow in many locations worldwide and in response, many parks are employing transit services designed to improve visitor access. Transit services (e.g., public bus service) are a component of the overall park transportation system and are very desirable in park settings as they yield many advantages over personal auto access including reduced congestion in parking areas, a reduced carbon footprint, and an enhanced visitor experience. However, a growing body of research also suggests that the delivery of visitors via transit to destinations within a park or protected area may have unique ecological disturbance implications resulting from increased visitor use, density, and altered spatial and temporal use patterns. In this paper, we examine the relevant literature and present examples from recent research that illustrates the potential range of ecologic impacts from visitor deliveries via park transportation systems. We conclude while transit systems remain very desirable in park settings, depending on a range of situational factors, conventional, demand-driven planning and management approaches may result in unintended impacts to ecological conditions. Overall, this discussion provides a framework for improved management of the potential ecological impacts of protected area transportation systems.

Effects on Consumer Welfare of Visitor Satisfaction with Recreation Information Availability: A Case Study of the Allegheny National Forest

This research quantifies changes in consumer welfare due to changes in visitor satisfaction with the availability of information about recreational sites. The authors tested the hypothesis that an improvement in visitor satisfaction with recreation information increases the number of visits to national forests, resulting in increased consumer welfare. They tested the hypothesis with a travel cost model for the Allegheny National Forest using data from the National Visitor Use Monitoring (NVUM) programme. An ex ante simulation suggests that annual per capita consumer welfare increased when highly satisfactory recreation information was available. The findings, along with the expected costs of providing better recreation information, may be a useful reference for recreation site managers who wish to increase the number of visits in an economically effective way.

Indication of visitor trampling impacts on intertidal seagrass beds in a New Zealand marine reserve

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) are recognised as an important tool for protecting sensitive habitats and ecosystems from anthropogenic impacts. Despite this protection, many of these areas are open to non-extractive or consumptive visitor activities, which often receive little regulation. This paper examines the effects of low-impact visitor activities on Zostera marina seagrass beds within the Te Angiangi Marine Reserve, New Zealand. Seagrass cover (shoot count and blade length) was compared between an area that received high levels of visitor use and an analogous, relatively-unused area within the marine reserve. The high-use area had significantly lower seagrass cover than the control site, with a gradient of increasing impact observed closer to the beach and at the edge of a high-use swimming area. These impacts reflect estimated visitor use patterns in the area and highlight the need for additional management strategies that consider the potential impacts of seemingly ‘low-impact’ visitor activities on sensitive habitats within no-take MPAs.

Differences in the impacts of formal and informal recreational trails on urban forest loss and tree structure

Recreational trails are one of the most common types of infrastructure used for nature-based activities such as hiking and mountain biking worldwide. Depending on their design, location, construction, maintenance and use, these trails differ in their environmental impacts. There are few studies, however, comparing the impacts of different trail types including between formal management-created trails and informal visitor-created trails. Although both types of trails can be found in remote natural areas, dense networks of them often occur in forests close to cities where they experience intense visitor use. To assess the relative impacts of different recreational trails in urban forests, we compared the condition of the trail surface, loss of forest strata and changes in tree structure caused by seven types of trails (total network 46.1 km) traversing 17 remnants of an endangered urban forest in Australia. After mapping and classifying all trails, we assessed their impact on the forest condition at 125 sites (15 sites per trail type, plus 15 control sites within undisturbed forest). On the trail sites, the condition of the trail surface, distance from the trail edge to four forest strata (litter, understory, midstorey and tree cover) and structure of the tree-line were assessed. Informal trails generally had poorer surface conditions and were poorly-designed and located. Per site, formal and informal trails resulted in similar loss of forest strata, with wider trails resulting in greater loss of forest. Because there were more informal trails, however, they accounted for the greatest cumulative forest loss. Structural impacts varied, with the widest informal trails and all formal hardened trails resulting in similar reductions in canopy cover and tree density but an increase in saplings. These structural impacts are likely a function of the unregulated and intense use of large informal trails, and disturbance from the construction and maintenance of formal trails. The results demonstrate that different types of recreational trails vary in the type and range of impacts they cause to forests. They highlight the importance of careful consideration towards management options when dealing with trail networks especially in areas of high conservation value.

Recreation changes the use of a wild landscape by corvids

ABSTRACT As urban areas have grown in population, use of nearby natural areas for outdoor recreation has also increased, potentially influencing bird distribution in landscapes managed for conservation. Members of the family Corvidae (crows, ravens, jays, and magpies) have strong interactions with humans and may be directly affected by recreation in wild landscapes. In Mount Rainier National Park, we evaluated the effects of vegetation, visitor use, and the availability of human-subsidized food on the use of landscape features by 4 corvid species: Steller's Jay (Cyanocitta stelleri), Gray Jay (Perisoreus canadensis), Common Raven (Corvus corax), and Clark's Nutcracker (Nucifraga columbiana). We conducted >1,400 point counts across areas that varied in habitat and in the degree of human recreational impact. We calculated predicted occupancy values while allowing for variation in detection probability. In addition to species-specific suites of vegetation and landscape variables, we found that patterns of hu...

New Challenges for Managing Sustainable Tourism in Protected Areas: An Exploratory Study of the European Landscape Convention in Sweden

“Sustainable tourism” has emerged as the dominant paradigm for managing visitor use in protected areas. An important consequence of this approach is that management tends to focus on issues inside protected-area boundaries. Recently, broader landscape-oriented approaches have gained attention (e.g., the European Landscape Convention [ELC]). These strategies strive to achieve sustainable landscape protection and often identify tourism as a key development strategy. Using Sweden as an example, this article explores the intersection of the landscape concept—as articulated in the ELC—with the contemporary notion of sustainable tourism management in protected areas. This exploratory study was conducted using qualitative research methods. While study participants reported strong potential in landscape-oriented approaches, they also identified key challenges including “institutional negotiation and conflict” and “confusion and uncertainty about the landscape concept.” The article concludes by addressing the implications for enhancing sustainable tourism management through adoption of landscape-oriented approaches.

Linking visitor motivation with attitude towards management restrictions on use in a national park

The increasing demand for visiting wilderness areas often requires management actions that both conserve the natural resources and ensure a high quality visitor experience. Many of the alpine national parks in southern Norway hold the last remaining populations of wild reindeer (Rangifer tarandus tarandus) in Europe. Therefore management needs more effective tools to reduce or remove recreational impact on wild reindeer populations. Management actions should also consult research-based knowledge on visitors. Therefore, this study explores the link between visitor motivations and their attitudes towards management actions on track-related (trail, path, trampling, track) and area-related (zoning, legal restrictions) use. The results show that two of the visitor motivations (i.e. hiking and place attachment) affect visitors’ attitudes towards management restrictions on use significantly. For instance, those visiting the national park for hiking are more positive to area-related restrictions while individuals attached to the place are more positive to track-related restrictions. Practical and theoretical implications are also discussed. Management implicationsWhen attempting to find socio-ecological solutions for conflicts between a wild reindeer population and recreational use, the following management recommendations should be considered:–A management solution should regard the fact that local users differ significantly from non-local visitors.–The strategy of ‘area restriction’ is highly controversial for local communities, due to their long tradition with subsistence harvesting, grazing and traditional agriculture; therefore such a strategy will receive only low approval among the locals and leave the management with low legitimacy at the local level.–The strategy of ‘management of the track system’ will affect most non-local visitors, but these visitors are more flexible in adapting to a new trail system in the area, or may shift to another area.–Visitors with strong place attachment, as well as wilderness seekers who desire solitude are difficult to influence with physical management actions.–A management strategy that will limit the area of use and behaviour of off-track visitors should include information about ecosystem vulnerability.

Adapting transportation to climate change on federal lands in Washington State, U.S.A.

Research scientists collaborated with federal land managers of two national parks and two national forests to conduct a climate change vulnerability assessment and to identify adaptation strategies for a transportation network covering 28,900 km of roads and trails in north-central Washington, U.S.A. The assessment employed observations of sensitivity and response to climatic variability, downscaled climate projections, literature reviews, current management policies and practices, expert knowledge, and stakeholder engagement. Primary pathways for climate impacts focused on projected increases in extreme high flows and flooding, elevated winter soil moisture and landslide hazards, and loss of snowpack. The biggest impacts to roads and trails are expected from temperature-induced changes in hydrologic regimes that enhance autumn flooding and reduce spring snowpack. Projected higher winter soil moisture caused by changes in seasonal precipitation and snow accumulation could reduce slope stability. Earlier snowmelt may lengthen the snow-free season for visitor use and agency operations. Infrastructure age, design, maintenance, location, use, and limited redundancy along with funding policies and management, influence the sensitivities of the transportation system. Vulnerabilities were identified based on when and where these sensitivities to changes in climate may emerge. Adaptation strategies and tactics identified to address these vulnerabilities included: upgrading stream crossing and drainage design, changing use and maintenance, relocating or closing roads and trails, modifying funding policies, and expanding pubic engagement. Many adaptation options are “no regrets” approaches to changes in climate projected for the 2040s and 2080s that can be applied to other resource sectors and mountainous regions.

도시광장 설계요소 및 공간이용 만족도 분석 - 광화문광장과 금빛공원광장을 중심으로 -

도시광장은 지역사회 모임이나 시장, 공연, 정치집회 및 기타 이벤트 등 다양한 활동이 행해지는 곳으로, 도시 내에서 다양한 유형으로 나타난다. 그럼에도 불구하고 대부분의 도시광장은 광장 유형별로 다르게 나타나는 방문객의 이용행태 및 이용만족에 대한 고려가 미비한 채 획일적으로 계획되어왔다. 본 연구에서는 서울에 위치한 일반광장 중 중심대광장을 대표하는 광화문광장과 근린광장을 대표하는 금빛공원광장을 중심으로 방문객 만족도에 영향을 미치는 설계요인과 세부 요소를 분석하여 도시광장 유형별 설계 시 중점적으로 고려해야 하는 방안을 제안하였다. 각 광장에서 수집한 설문조사 결과는 요인분석, 회귀분석, 퍼지이론 등을 이용하여 분석하였다. 연구결과를 요약하면, 첫째, 도시광장 설계요소 만족요인은 어메니티, 이용성, 공간특성, 문화성, 쾌적성요인으로 구분되었다. 둘째, 광화문광장의 공간이용 만족도에 영향을 미치는 요인은 어메니티요인, 쾌적성요인, 공간특성요인 순으로 나타났으며, 금빛공원광장의 공간이용 만족도에 영향을 미치는 요인 쾌적성요인, 어메니티요인, 이용성요인, 공간특성요인 순으로 나타났다. 셋째, 도시광장의 설계요소에 대한 만족요인별 만족순위를 퍼지이론을 통해 비교한 결과, 광화문광장은 어메니티요인 중 광장의 청결도에 대한 만족도가 가장 높게 나타났다. 금빛공원광장은 쾌적성요인 중 광장의 수목에 대한 만족도가 가장 높게 나타났다. 이와 같이 본 연구에서는 중심대광장과 근린광장의 이용객 만족도에 영향을 미치는 설계요소를 비교하였다. 연구의 결과는 이용객 만족을 고려한 도시광장 설계 및 계획에 기초자료로 사용될 수 있을 것으로 기대된다. The city square is an important public open space for people. Being used for various activities, such as community gatherings, open markets, concerts, political rallies, and other events, many types of city squares are represented in a city. Nevertheless, most city squares are planned uniformly, lacking consideration for visitor behavior and use satisfaction. The study investigated the design factors and subcomponents influencing user satisfaction with different types of city squares. This study focused on the general city square in Seoul, including the grand public place (i.e. Gwanghwamun Square) and the neighborhood park (i.e. Geumbit Square). The data were analyzed using factor analysis, linear regression and fuzzy theory. The results of the study are as follows: first, five design factors of satisfaction with city squares are identified (Amenity, Usability, Spatial components, Culture, and Comfortableness). Second, Amenity, Comfortableness, and spatial components significantly affect user satisfaction with Gwanghwamun in that order. On the other hand, in Geumbit Square, Comfortableness, Amenity, Usability and Spatial components affect user satisfaction in a significant way, in that order. Third, cleanliness, a subcomponent of amenity, was ranked highest using the fuzzy theory function for satisfaction with Gwanghwamun Square. Otherwise, the prevalence of plants was ranked the highest on the Geumbit Square survey. The study compared design factors influencing satisfaction in the public grand place and the neighborhood park. The results have implications for designing and planning city squares to the satisfaction of their visitors.

Desktop analysis of potential impacts of visitor use: A case study for the highest park in the Southern Hemisphere

Nature–based tourism and recreation activities have a range of environmental impacts, but most protected area agencies have limited capacity to assess them. To prioritise where and what impacts to monitor and manage, we conducted a desktop assessment using Geographical Information Systems (GIS) by combining recreation ecology research with data on visitor usage and key environmental features for a popular protected area used for mountaineering and trekking, Aconcagua Provincial Park (2400–6962 m a.s.l.) in the Andes of Argentina. First, we integrated visitor data from permits with environmental data using GIS. We then identified key impact indicators for different activities based on the recreation ecology literature. Finally, we integrated this data to identify likely ecological impacts based on the types of activities, amount of use and altitudinal zones. Visitors only used 2% of the Park, but use was concentrated in areas of high conservation value including in alpine meadows and glacier lakes. Impacts on water resources were likely to be concentrated in campsites from the intermediate to the nival/glacial zones of the Park while impacts on terrestrial biodiversity were likely to be more severe in the low and intermediate alpine zones (2400–3800 m a.s.l.). These results highlight how visitor data can be used to identify priority areas for on-ground assessment of impacts in key locations. Improvements to the management of visitors in this Park involves more effective ways of dealing with water extraction and human waste in high altitude campsites and the impacts of hikers and pack animals in the low and intermediate alpine zones.

Is tourism damaging ecosystems in the Andes? Current knowledge and an agenda for future research.

Despite the popularity of tourism and recreation in the Andes in South America and the regions conservation value, there is limited research on the ecological impacts of these types of anthropogenic use. Using a systematic quantitative literature review method, we found 47 recreation ecology studies from the Andes, 25 of which used an experimental design. Most of these were from the Southern Andes in Argentina (13 studies) or Chile (eight studies) with only four studies from the Northern Andes. These studies documented a range of impacts on vegetation, birds and mammals; including changes in plant species richness, composition and vegetation cover and the tolerance of wildlife of visitor use. There was little research on the impacts of visitors on soils and aquatic systems and for some ecoregions in the Andes. We identify research priorities across the region that will enhance management strategies to minimise visitor impacts in Andean ecosystems.

Ecological indicators for assessing management effectiveness: A case study of horse riding in an Alpine National Park

SummaryRecreation activities and visitor use often have deleterious ecological impacts in protected areas. Management agencies then face the difficult task of providing recreation and tourism opportunities without compromising environmental values. This study assessed the success of efforts aimed at conserving alpine vegetation along the Mt Bogong Massif in Victoria, Australia, through controlling the use of horses. Vegetation condition was assessed in 2001 to coinciding with restrictions on the use of horse riding on trails and then resurveyed 10 years later. Sampling was undertaken in track plots that included the trail and surrounding vegetation, and control plots located away from the trail. There were significant differences in the amount of bare ground, the height of shrubs and ground layer vegetation, and shrub cover between track and control plots in 2001. Ten years later, track plots were recovering with reductions in bare ground and changes in vegetation, with improved ground layer vegetation height. Results show that vegetation condition has improved with restrictions of horse numbers. The indicators selected were sensitive to changes in vegetation condition and hence should be used for ongoing assessment of the effectiveness of this and similar management interventions.

GPS Visitor Tracking and Recreation Suitability Mapping: Tools for understanding and managing visitor use

Understanding space in parks and protected areas is becoming more important as recreation and other uses in these areas change and increase. Spatial demand and space utility are of particular importance to multiple-use forests, which may have competing demands and limited acreage. For managers to balance the demands of society, maintain healthy ecosystems, and generate revenue these demands must be integrated on some level. Spatial data and analysis can help with integration; however, social science data can be difficult to integrate into spatial modeling and analysis. This study examined the integration of two mapping methods that can assist in the incorporation of social science data into spatial models: Recreation Suitability Mapping (RSM) and GPS Visitor Tracking (GVT). Visitor use preferences were spatially mapped to create recreation suitability models for competing recreation activity groups, and GPS tracking of visitor use was used to compare and contrast actual user patterns with mapped preferences. Combining RSM and GVT proved useful for informing visitor management in a small acreage, multi-use public forest experiencing high spatial demand. Theoretical, methodological, and practical implications are discussed.

A free pricing strategy at a major tourist attraction: The Case of West Lake, China

Abstract This study analyzes an uncommon tourism attraction pricing phenomenon in China, known as “free West Lake”. West Lake Scenic District in Hangzhou is a World Heritage Site in China׳s most prosperous eastern region. Here, the admission fee was progressively removed and free access was introduced. This paper uses Chinese newspaper reports, official documents and academic articles to explore the evolution of the pricing policy and its consequences for visitor use and government finances, with implications for other attractions in China and elsewhere. This novel pricing initiative resulted in an initial economic loss to the local government but eventually broadened the economic base, reduced the environmental pressure on certain sensitive heritage sites, and enhanced tourists׳ experiences, residents׳ quality of life and the city׳s reputation, providing novel insights into public resource management in China. The case highlights the importance of adopting a broad perspective on admission pricing, as the implications may extend beyond the narrow confines of the facility in question.

Survey of North Carolina Hospital Policies Regarding Visitor Use of Personal Protective Equipment for Entering the Rooms of Patients under Isolation Precautions

To explore the range of hospital policies for visitor use of personal protective equipment (PPE) when entering the room of patients under isolation precautions. Survey using an online questionnaire. Acute care hospitals registered in the North Carolina Statewide Program for Infection Control and Epidemiology (SPICE). A total of 136 North Carolina hospitals were invited to participate in an online survey. The survey questionnaire was developed, reviewed, and pilot tested, and then it was distributed through SPICE listserv registered e-mail addresses. The survey was conducted from February 6 to March 30, 2012. Among 93 respondent hospitals (response rate, 68.4%), 82 acute care hospitals (60.3%) were included in the analyses. Substantial variation was observed with regard to hospital policies for visitor PPE use when visiting patients under isolation precautions. A total of 71% of hospitals had a hospital visitor policy, and 96% of respondents agreed that hospitals should have a visitor policy. Only 14% of hospitals monitored visitor compliance with PPE. Reported compliance rates varied from "very low" to 97%. Many hospitals (28%) reported difficulties related to visitor compliance with isolation precautions, including hostility and refusal to comply. Our study results illuminated hospital policy variations for visitor isolation precautions. Reported problems with hospital visitor policies (eg, different policies across departments or facilities) suggest the need for standard guidelines and for enhanced public awareness about the importance of visitor compliance with isolation precautions.