Use Of State Resources Research Articles

The Relevance of Wagner’s Hypothesis in Achieving Sustainable Development Agenda in Nigeria

Policy ambiguity in the form of non-directional and non-purposeful use of state resources has made sustainable growth outcomes a mirage in Nigeria. The recent economic crisis prompted the debate on how increased government spending induces sustainable economic growth in Nigeria. This paper examines the validity or otherwise of Wagner’s theory in Nigeria for the realization of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) from 1980 through 2017. By using time-series data on real gross domestic product, total government expenditure, money supply, and domestic investment and adopting the two-step Engle and Granger estimation procedure, result shows that increased government spending significantly predicts variations in real gross domestic product and thus leaned empirical credence to Wagner’s hypothesis as an essential concept for the attainment of Sustainable Development Goals in Nigeria. This paper recommended that the government should exhaust all possible option to increase expenditure in order to realize sustainable growth in Nigeria. JEL Classification: E62, O11 How to Cite:Oseni, I. O., & Adekunle, I. A. (2020). The Relevance of Wagner’s Hypothesis in Achieving Sustainable Development Agenda in Nigeria. Signifikan: Jurnal Ilmu Ekonomi, Vol. 9(1), 123-136. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.15408/sjie.v9i1.12884

РАЗВИТИЕ СИСТЕМЫ ОЦЕНКИ ЭФФЕКТИВНОСТИ ИСПОЛЬЗОВАНИЯ ГОСУДАРСТВЕННЫХ РЕСУРСОВ ДЛЯ СОЗДАНИЯ НАЦИОНАЛЬНОЙ ИННОВАЦИОННОЙ СИСТЕМЫ КАК ФАКТОР ПОВЫШЕНИЯ ЭКОНОМИЧЕСКОЙ БЕЗОПАСНОСТИ ГОСУДАРСТВА

The article considers the current and future systems for assessing the effectiveness of the use of state resources to create a national innovation system as a factor in improving the economic security of the state, the author develops a methodological approach to assessing the effectiveness of the use of state resources to create a national innovation system. The cyclical development of the world economy in the conditions of globalization is connected, first of all, with the change of technological structures, as well as with the provision of competitiveness for all levels of economic management. In the domestic and foreign economic literature, there is an idea of the national innovation system, which covers all types of economic objects in the country with innovations, increasing their competitiveness, and, thus, the national economy as a whole, and also directly affects the increase in the level of economic security of the country. Most developed countries and many developing countries have already established or are in the process of establishing their national innovation systems, built either on the basis of models already known and tested in other countries, or new, unique models for building innovation systems. The differences between these models of creation of national innovation systems of different countries are, both in the levels of economic objects, which are the basis of innovative breakthrough, and in the degree of use of public resources: "centralized model", based on public resources, or "market model", or a mixed model of "public-private partnership". These issues are the basis for consideration of the presented article. The methodological basis for writing the article was modern scientific research methods, including: dialectical method, method of system analysis, methods of analogy, comparative analysis, expert methods, structural-functional and normative approaches.

Інституціональні аспекти вибору та застосування аудиторських процедур

The purpose of the article is to identify the substantive characteristics and possibilities of application of audit procedures in the context of the implementation of its functions as of a public institute. On the base of application of the method of abstraction, it is established that the main elements of the audit institution that affect the features of planning, implementation and evaluation of audit procedures are the institutions, the subject of the audit and the functional content of the procedures. It’s found the following types of procedures: providing, implementation, identification, evaluation, comply with ethical requirements and quality control. It is determined that there are differences in the procedures performed by public and independent audit entities. The reason for such differences is the integration of public audit entities into the public resource management system. Differences are characterized, in particular, by the lack of procedures in the state audit for compliance with ethical requirements and quality control. Instead, independent auditing entities are delegated by law to perform procedures that are not directly related to audit tasks. The subject area of the audit performed by state institutions is limited by the use of state resources. This makes it impossible to use the results of the audit by public groups that do not participate in these processes. The functional workload of audit procedures determines the possibility of their use for the implementation of executive and information functions by the subjects of state audit, as well as the information function of audit firms and private auditors. The problem of restrictions on using of audit procedures in the audit institute functioning context is proposed to be solved by amending the regulations. Such changes will help expand the powers of public audit entities in the selection and application of audit procedures.

Competing Frames, Domestic Discretion and Uneven Outcomes: Administrative Reform in Greece under the Crisis

In the past nine years, the Greek administration has undergone a wide range of reforms. Did the high ambitions translate into significant change? In order to provide some answers, the paper examines and compares the outcome of administrative reforms that took place in the past years in two core state areas relating to the use of state resources and presenting similar problems: (i) budgeting and fiscal management and (ii) human resources management. Reforms in these areas are assessed in relation to targeted administrative deficiencies. The main research finding is that change has been uneven affecting at different degrees the policy core. The ambitious agenda primarily resulted in the modernization of policy instruments. New policy frames competed with old ones, sometimes prevailing and sometimes being captured and hollowed out. In fiscal management there is significant change, challenging deeper policy frames and patterns accounting for critical deficiencies. In contrast, in HRM reforms results are rather unambitious. Thus the changes introduced are mostly secondary and do not challenge the core of pre-existing policy arrangements. The paper offers an explanation of these uneven outcomes and questions the conditions of reform sustainability.

İstanbul Şehrinde İnşa Edilecek Raylı Sistem Projelerinde Kamu Özel İşbirliği Projeleri için Değer Yakalama Stratejilerinin Değerlendirilmesi

For urban rail lines, there is a need for resources at all stages such as planning, construction and operation. In financing these structures with large budgets and requiring specialized construction, it is possible to implement not only the use of state resources but also many models of Public-Private Partnership (PPP). This method, which can be called alternative financing, will make a significant contribution to the realization of investment auctions and will also contribute to the rapid commissioning / finalization of investments. This model has been tried many times in the world and it has been evaluated that it will be more successful for all the types of the metro (cable car, light subway, monorail, street tram which can be called as a relatively light subway investment. For rail lines when alternative financing is required, it would be appropriate to increase the diversity of income items in feasibility reports. In this context, in addition to travel revenues, real estate value tax, Tax credit financing, goodwill and real estate development partnership can provide income. Real estate prices increase in the area where rail system investment is made and this situation is used as a direct marketing tool by construction companies. On the other hand, in cases where Station structures have to be constructed outside the public area, the cost of expropriation for the project is increasing and financing needs are increasing. For the transportation investment projects carried out as Public-Private Partnership Project (PPP), the use of value increase strategies other than passenger revenues will be beneficial in terms of financing. The demographic and geographic features of the project will be decisive in the determination of the Value Capture Strategies (VCS) to be used. Within the scope of this project; VCS strategies were evaluated in PPP models by using analytical hierarchy process (AHP) with expert opinion in rail system projects to be carried out in Istanbul.

Service Quality of Organizations Providing Long- Term Social Care

The article presents an evaluation of social care quality following the EQUASS methodology. The evaluation was carried out considering the aspects of institutional care reform and factors of intersectoral collaboration and partnership between organizations providing social services which are important for the spread of good practice, more effective institution management and optimization of state resource use. In addition, the article discusses the requirements for social care institutions‘ service quality, analyzes the main models for service quality assessment applied in Lithuania and the EU. The research has shown that based on the evaluation of research subjects, the social care institutions‘ service quality is quite high. The quality of services could be improved by eliminating the weaknesses of intersectoral collaboration.

Current status and prospects of development of the system of agrarian insurance in Ukraine

Under the conditions of the development of market relations, the insurance protection of agricultural producers plays an essential role in the economic stabilization of their development. Insurance can be one of the most effective tools for managing production, market and legal risks, but agricultural insurance is not well developed in the country. The purpose of the article is to study the current state and prospects for further development of the Ukrainian agrarian insurance system, based on developing the strategy of development of the latter with maximum consideration of needs and interests of all its participants.General scientific methods of scientific knowledge and research of economic phenomena are used for the achievement of the goal set in the article, such as the abstract-logical method, comparison method, monographic method, tabular method, graphical and scientific generalization.The article investigates features of the present state and general tendencies of functioning of the Ukrainian agrarian insurance system and outlines general features and prospects of further development of the latter, which are based on development of the strategy of system development with maximum consideration of needs and interests of all its participants. A set of principles is defined on which the strategy of development of the Ukrainian agricultural insurance system should be based and their further functioning in the format of the model of private-public partnership is proposed within the framework of the developed strategy. This represents a balance between public-private partnerships. The results of the study can be used for further scientific developments in this direction. The implementation of the measures proposed in the framework of the strategy for the development of the Ukrainian agrarian insurance system through the effective use of state resources and maximum use of the agrarian market and the insurance market should ensure stability of both agricultural production in general and income of the rural population in particular. This is a prerequisite for stable economic growth of the country and an increase in the welfare of its citizens.

INCREASE OF STIMULANT INFLUENCE REMITTANCES FROM ABROAD

Introduction. The transition to the program budget in the public finance sector, the strengthening of the fight against corruption and offenses in the budget sphere attach particular importance to the problems of improving the management of financial resources. In this regard, the problem of efficient formation and spending of budgetary funds is relevant. Purpose.The purpose of the article is to reveal the essence of the state financial control in the budget sphere and develop practical proposals for its development. Results.The main problems of the state financial control in Ukraine should include: the fiscal nature of the overwhelming majority of control procedures; absence of system control, where the main is further control, and the procedures of preliminary and ongoing control are rather weak and unregulated; not awareness of the importance of internal financial control both in the system of management of public finances and managers of enterprises, institutions, organizations; the low level of effectiveness of the administrative penalty mechanism, when the amount of the fine for misuse or illegal use of budget funds is considerably less than the amount of budget funds that the state loses due to abuse of officials and can not provide full compensation for these losses; growth of financial irregularities in the use of budget funds; unregulated activity and cross-section of the functions of the subjects of financial control; weak interaction between externaland internal control bodies. The formation of the mechanism for its implementation should be based on a set of principles that reflect the main properties of the system being created in the scientific, methodological, legal and organizational aspects. It is this hierarchy of structuring that is justified and rational. The group of scientific and methodological principles include the following: systemic, complexity, purposefulness, continuity. The set of legal principles includes: legality, unity, prerogative of national interests. Our organizational principles include: parity, objectivity and competence, budget efficiency, preventive, interaction between public authorities and local self-government. In the process of forming a mechanism for the implementation of financial control must take into account its dual economic orientation. First, it must ensure the rational use of financial resources, which is expressed in minimizing budget expenditures. Secondly, the effectiveness of control activities manifests itself in the strictly targeted use of state resources with high economic efficiency of the corresponding investments. Thus, the criterion for evaluating the rationality of the implementation of financial control is the quantitatively expressed correlation between the target consumption of public funds and the stable replenishment of budgetary resources. Conclusion. The current practice of conducting financial audits confirms the existence of complex problems in the budget sphere. The following typical violations such as non-targeted, unlawful and inefficient spending of public funds are fairly common. At present, in the arsenal of controlling bodies, largely outdated forms and methods of audits and audits prevail. Their focus is mainly on identifying the facts of violations, and not the reasons for their occurrence, which does not contribute to successfully overcoming the disadvantages of using budget funds. A transition to a higher level of quality control and revision work with the use of modern instruments of monitoring and auditing, achievements of domestic and foreign economic science is necessary. Continuing scientific research, it is advisable to focus on the mechanisms of using new approaches to the management of the system of state financial control bodies as a practical tool for ensuring the efficiency of spending budget funds.

La manipulación del marco legal de las elecciones en América Latina entre 2000 y 2012: una aproximación metodológica

Hay una larga lista de malas prácticas electorales que desnivelan el piso sobre el cual compiten partidos y candidatos en muchas democracias emergentes, dañando la confianza en las instituciones políticas y en la legitimidad de los gobiernos electos. ¿Cómo entender, medir, comparar, algunas de esas prácticas? En este trabajo se presenta un marco analítico para examinar y medir una de las formas más generalizadas de manipulación en América Latina: la del diseño de las leyes electorales. En este marco se examina el caso de 16 países de la región en el periodo comprendido entre 2000 y 2012 en cuatro áreas críticas para la integridad de las elecciones: la cobertura de los medios de comunicación, las finanzas de campaña, los organismos electorales y el uso de recursos del Estado.

PUBLIC FUNDING OF CIVIL SOCIETY ORGANIZATIONS IN LATIN AMERICA: HOW DO WE EVALUATE PROFITABILITY?

For Latin American states, it is common practice to channel public funds to Civil Society Organizations (CSOs) to meet various social needs. However, the impact of this investment is not well understood. There is a need for a deeper knowledge of the issues, such as the components that are being financed and how CSOs use the resources. Also, a better understanding of the impact on the individual beneficiaries of the CSOs is necessary. These issues need resolving to move towards optimizing the use of State resources for the common benefit of society. The main hypothesis of this study is that, although the State generally invests a large amount of funding into CSOs, this funding is inefficiently distributed. A more efficient State funding for CSOs, in terms of positive social impact, would make these organizations more socially profitable.

Pushing an End to Sanctuary Cities: Will it Happen?

Sanctuary jurisdictions refer to city, town, and state governments (collectively, localities or local governments) that have passed provisions to limit their enforcement of federal immigration laws. Such local governments execute limiting provisions in order to bolster community cooperation, prevent racial discrimination, focus on local priorities for enforcement, or even to a show a local policy that differs from federal policy. The provisions are in the forms of executive orders, municipal ordinances, and state resolutions. Additionally, the scope of the provisions vary by locality: some prohibit law enforcement from asking about immigration status, while others prohibit the use of state resources to enforce federal immigration laws. Despite these variations, such local provisions intend to stifle cooperation with the federal government to adopt a more inclusionary local enforcement policy. Immigration policy is unanimously understood as a federal power, suggesting that federal immigration laws preempt the local governments’ provisions. Such preemption challenges have been brought to court, yet sanctuary cities remain largely untouched. The July 2015 murder of Kate Steinle in San Francisco, CA, renewed political discourse on the topic. Juan Francisco Lopez-Sanchez, an undocumented immigrant who had been previously deported five times, was charged for the murder. Mr. Lopez-Sanchez’s long history of crime and immigration violations fueled critiques of city policies and put the federal spotlight back onto sanctuary cities. The House of Representatives has since passed H.R. 3009, which would deny some federal assistance to localities that enact provisions prohibiting officers from taking certain actions with respect to immigration. President-elect Donald Trump recently announced his bold plan to cancel all federal funding to such localities. Other immigration-focused measures continue to be introduced and discussed in Congress. If passed, what practical impact would H.R. 3009, or similar legislation, have on local immigration enforcement? The bill still has considerable obstacles to overcome. However, enactment of such legislation has the potential to push local enforcement towards cooperation with federal policy.

Promoting a Competitive Local Business Community in Ghana: The Role of the Legal Framework for Public Procurement

AbstractGhana's Public Procurement Act 2003 was enacted to bring about the judicious, economic and efficient use of state resources, transparency, fairness, and non-discrimination in procurement. The primary objective of the act is best value for money. This article assesses how, beyond being used to achieve its primary objective, the law should be applied to propel the capacity and competitiveness of local businesses in Ghana. It argues that effective implementation of the act can indirectly promote competition and industrial competiveness in Ghana. Therefore, procurement entities must follow the requirements for procurement, both to achieve best value for money and to build and improve upon the capacity of domestic industries. Competition, transparency and restrictions on the application of single-source procurement and restricted tendering can promote and encourage the participation of Ghanaian firms in procurement. This can enhance their capacity and competitiveness in both procurement and other economic activities in Ghana.

Effects of Public Procurement Disposal Act (2005) On Transparency and Accountability on Management of Public Finance: A Case of Public Secondary Schools in Imenti North District

Public procurement has a real impact on everyday lives as the creation of both social and economic infrastructure like roads, schools, hospitals and provisions for drinking water and sanitation are but examples of government investment in public sector. The ultimate goal of public procurement is to satisfy the public interest in this sense of good procurement that should satisfy the needs of the people, should be fair to business, should save and avoid wastage of public funds. Therefore this study intention was to establish the effects of Public Procurement Disposal Act (2005) on transparency and accountability on management of public finance: It was guided by the following objectives; to examine the causes of the delay in procurement activities and their effects; to examine the extent to which the Public Procurement and Disposal Act achieves transparency in the use of state resources, to assess the effects of Public Procurement and Disposal Act on expenditure control and to determine the effects of Public Procurement Disposal Act on fairness and competition. This study adopted descriptive research design and the sample was selected using simple random sampling to ensure representativeness. Data was collected from 86 respondents drawn from 43 public secondary schools in Imenti North District in Meru County and this comprised of two members from tendering committee from each school. Imenti North District was selected since it has the highest number of public Secondary schools in Meru County. Data was collected through semi- structured questionnaire. After the collection of data it was analyzed using SPSS and thereafter presented using frequency tables and percentages. The study revealed (67.9%) that procurement activities and procedures were not transparent in that decisions on procurement activities did not follow the rules and regulations of the Act and these decisions were not available and accessible to the public.

Cost-Effectiveness Analysis of Boceprevir for the Treatment of Chronic Hepatitis C Virus Genotype 1 Infection in Portugal

The recent approval of two protease inhibitors, boceprevir and telaprevir, is likely to change the management of chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) genotype 1 infection. We evaluated the long-term clinical outcomes and the cost effectiveness of therapeutic strategies using boceprevir with peginterferon plus ribavirin (PR) in comparison with PR alone for treating HCV genotype 1 infection in Portugal. A Markov model was developed to project the expected lifetime costs and quality-adjusted life-years (QALYs) associated with PR alone and the treatment strategies outlined by the European Medicines Agency in the boceprevir summary of product characteristics. The boceprevir-based therapeutic strategies differ according to whether or not the patient was previously treated and whether or not the patient had compensated cirrhosis. The model simulated the experience of a series of cohorts of chronically HCV-infected patients (each defined by age, sex, race and fibrosis score). All treatment-related inputs were obtained from boceprevir clinical trials - SPRINT-2, RESPOND-2 and PROVIDE. Estimates of the natural history parameters and health state utilities were based on published studies. Portugal-specific annual direct costs of HCV health states were estimated by convening a panel of experts to derive health state resource use and multiplying the results by national unit costs. The model was developed from a healthcare system perspective with a timeframe corresponding to the remaining duration of the patients' lifetimes. Both future costs and QALYs were discounted at 5 %. To test the robustness of the conclusions, we conducted deterministic and probabilistic sensitivity analyses. In comparison with the treatment with PR alone, boceprevir-based regimens were projected to reduce the lifetime incidence of advanced liver disease, liver transplantation, and liver-related death by 45-51 % and increase life expectancy by 2.3-4.3 years. Although the addition of BOC increased treatment costs by €13,300-€19,700, the reduction of disease burden resulted in a decrease of €5,400-€9,000 in discounted health state costs and an increase of 0.68-1.23 in discounted QALYs per patient. The incremental cost-effectiveness ratios of the boceprevir-based regimens compared with PR among previously untreated and previously treated patients were €11,600/QALY and €8,700/QALY, respectively. The results were most sensitive to variations in sustained virologic response rates, discount rates and age at treatment. Adding boceprevir to PR was projected to reduce the number of liver complications and liver-related deaths, and to be cost effective in treating both previously untreated and treated patients.

Human Dignity and Socio-Economic Rights

The South African Constitution numbers among a very few constitutions around the world which include justiciable socio-economic rights. One of the controversies surrounding judicial enforcement of such rights is the extent to which it is appropriate for courts to engage in policy choices in relation to the use of state resources in light of the doctrine of the separation of powers. The South African Constitutional Court has responded by developing an approach to adjudication of socio-economic rights in which the role of the court is to determine the reasonableness or otherwise of measures taken by the legislature and executive to implement such rights. However, the South African Constitution is also notable for its identification of human dignity as an underlying value and the explicit duty placed on the courts to interpret the rights protected under the Bill of Rights in conformity with this value. This article scrutinises the socio-economic rights jurisprudence of the South African Constitutional court in light of the Constitutional commitment to human dignity. It questions whether reasonableness review in socio-economic cases successfully balances human dignity with the appropriate degree of deference to the legislature and executive, in compliance with the doctrine of the separation of powers.

ASSESSING THE EFFECTS OF THE PROCUREMENT ACT (663) ON PUBLIC FINANCIAL MANAGEMENT IN ASHANTI REGION

The Government of Ghana has since 2001 made various efforts to correct the uncontrolled expenditure of public funds that characterised the national economy which has led to a rather unstable economic climate. This article discusses the extent to which the Public Procurement Act (654) has achieved transparency in the use of state resources, causes of delays in the procurement process and effects of the Procurement Act on government expenditure in the Ashanti Region. The descriptive and explanatory research designs were used for the study. The study relied on both probability and non probability sampling techniques. The study revealed that procurement activities and procedures were transparent because decisions on procurement activities followed the rules and regulations of the Act. It was further revealed that contractors were not paid on time after execution of contracts and this affected their organisational management. It was concluded that the Procurement Act had reduced government expenditure considerably in the sense that the Procurement Act has reduced wastage and leakage of financial resources through effective auditing, expenditure monitoring and cost effectiveness and competition which has brought value for money.

Jobs in politicians’ backyards: Party leadership competition and patronage

What are the factors that lead to variation in the clientelistic use of state resources in electoral contexts? In this article I provide one answer to this question by focusing on the role of intra-party politics and analyzing the empirical case of patronage jobs in the Argentine provinces between 1984 and 2001. Patronage jobs in provincial administrations help governors build political support both in their own party and with the general public. However, when governors need their party (leader)’s support for their political careers and when the national party leadership position is open to competition, they reduce their clientelistic efforts not to lose the party’s (or party leader’s) support. The statistical analysis of public employment confirms this prediction that patronage is lower when the party’s (or party leader’s) support is important for politicians and when the leadership position within parties is open to competition.

Deepening Democracy through Multipartyism: The Bumpy Road to Uganda's 2011 Elections

The 2011 elections will be one of the several elections (and the second-ever multiparty election) organized by the National Resistance Movement (NRM) since it captured power in 1986. Despite the regular elections since the 1990s, the quality and outcomes of these elections have remained subjects of debate. Democracy has remained elusive in Uganda despite the re-introduction of multiparty politics. Incumbency advantages, manipulation and unconstitutional use of state resources and apparatuses, and removal of the constitutional term limits on the presidency have combined to hamper effective growth of multiparty politics and democracy in the country. The question is: Does electioneering necessarily produce democratic governance or does it simply create the conditions and norms necessary for institutionalization of democratic rule? In particular, does the existence of multiparty politics necessarily deepen democratic governance? This paper stresses that despite the return of multiparty politics in Uganda, neither has democracy been consolidated nor have elections acted as effective instruments for advancing democratization in the country.

State promotion of consumerism in Safavid Iran: Shah Abbas I and royal silk textiles

PurposeThis purpose of this paper is to investigate the policies and consequences of state‐directed consumerism in Iran during the reign of Shah Abbas I (1587–1629) of the Safavid dynasty.Design/methodology/approachThe research is based upon several secondary literatures, especially Middle Eastern studies and art history, as well as primary source materials in the form of architecture, its decorative elements, and other works. The visual content and consumption themes of a selected tile painting are described and analyzed.FindingsThe Shah strengthened the state by building infrastructure, encouraging international trade, and creating a robust silk industry where he controlled production and marketing. He utilized his city and its architecture as a means of communication to impress his subjects and foreign visitors and to increase domestic demand for silk textiles. These promotional efforts led to a surge in spending, which occurred about the same time as similar booms in England and France. Economic problems and rising Islamism dampened this episode of Persian consumerism in the latter part of the seventeenth century.Research limitations/implicationsThe set of visual data sources is small and limited to works from just one city, Isfahan.Originality/valueThe research fills gaps in the marketing and consumption history literatures which have not as yet fully considered the use of state resources to promote domestic consumption, consumer marketing in the Middle East, and the promotional roles played by architecture and its decorative elements.

The Independent Republic of Football: The Politics of Neighborhood Clubs in Santiago, Chile, 1948–1960

In the 1950s, amateur sports clubs in Santiago, Chile created a magnetic icon of the popular barrio or neighborhood football player. This figure became a charismatic symbol of working-class ingenuity and class injustice. It represented an alternative construction of masculinity based on one's physical labor, creativity, and political militancy. Popular neighborhood clubs integrated working-class men into urban politics, connected them to parties, and served as sites of political critique. This article argues that barrio football clubs contributed to radicalization in working-class neighborhoods, key to the growth of leftist parties on a national level. It begins with an analysis of San Miguel, a center of barrio football, and then moves to examine the relationship between amateur and professional clubs. Professionals, led by corporate executives with strong connections to the state, sought to de-politicize and de-localize football to create a profitable business. Shaped by Cold War rhetoric, battle lines had been drawn between those who embraced professionalism as part of economic modernization and progress and the amateur footballers who criticized its materialism and corruption. Moreover, practices surrounding women's participation, use of state resources, and the proper place of political expression created lasting divisions.