Use Of Solar Photovoltaic Systems Research Articles

Analysis of area saving and efficiency enhancement of photovoltaic system combined with thermoelectric generator

The use of solar photovoltaic systems for home, industrial, and electric vehicles has grown dramatically in recent years. It generates energy from a natural source known as sunlight, and the use of irradiation to the solar panel generates heat, which correctly restricts the Photo Voltaic (PV) panel's power generation. When irradiation increases, output power grows in proportion to input power, but efficiency falls due to temperature. Heat affects the entire area of the solar panel that generates electricity, making the panels less efficient at producing energy. To emphasise, several cooling systems for reducing heat have been introduced. Likewise, heat can be reduced by transforming energy, such as thermal energy, into electrical energy. Thermoelectric Generators (TEGs) are required in PV panels to reduce heat through energy conversion. In this work, experiments were carried out to examine the efficiency of PV panels with and without TEG combination. This experiment demonstrates at of solar irradiation at 730 W/m2. As a result, PV-TEG with a heat sink reduces the temperature of the PV panel up to 6 °C. In addition, this combination improves the TEG voltage up to 0.7 V and provides overall gain up to 1.8 times that TEG alone. Also, the area will be conserved due to the use of TEG behind the PV panel, and experimental verification shows that 15 % of the space is saved, and the overall efficiency has been raised by 14 - 16 % when compared to the PV panel working alone.

Biogas and photovoltaic solar energy as renewable energy in wastewater treatment plants: A focus on energy recovery and greenhouse gas emission mitigation

Globalization has led to a rapid rise in energy consumption, making climate change one of the world's most pressing issues. As wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) contribute to climate change by emitting greenhouse gases (GHGs), this study estimated the total GHG emissions of WWTPs by classifying them as either direct or indirect carbon emissions. The effectiveness of the use of solar photovoltaic systems and biogas produced by WWTPs in increasing energy recovery and reducing GHG emissions was investigated. This study demonstrated that the use of an up-flow anaerobic sludge blanket (UASB) reactor with a biogas flow of 9 120.77 m3/d and an activated sludge processing system (ASPS) reactor with a biogas flow of 14 004 m3/d, in addition to the energy production from the UASB reactor (6 421.8 MW⸱h per year) and the ASPS reactor (9 860.0 MW⸱h per year), yielded a reduction of 3 316.85 and 5 092.69 t of CO2 equivalent per year, respectively. Furthermore, the co-design of wastewater processes could be utilized to optimize biogas energy recovery. Moreover, the use of solar photovoltaic systems reduced GHG emissions from WWTPs. This is important to the transition to renewable energy because it resulted in a 10%–40% reduction in carbon emissions from WWTPs. Integrating renewable energy sources, biogas, and solar energy could provide up to 88% of the annual energy requirements of WWTPs. Recommendations are provided for further research considering the limited availability of integrated resources for studying the simultaneous utilization of photovoltaic and biogas systems.

Perceptions of Solar Photovoltaic System Adopters in Sub-Saharan Africa: A Case of Adopters in Ntchisi, Malawi

The study reported in this article aimed to deepen the understanding of the mechanisms driving the adoption and usage of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems in rural Malawian households, particularly among communities that have not received prior solar energy interventions. It used a qualitative approach to investigate the experiences of solar PV system adopters in Ntchisi, Malawi. The study included fourteen participants, and data were collected through observations and interviews, which were then analysed using thematic analysis procedures. The study’s findings indicate that many individuals in rural areas have installed solar PV systems that lack adequate training, resulting in potentially hazardous installations. The installation of solar PV systems in villages is motivated by several factors, including the lack of electricity, convenience, benefits, and personal interest in learning more about solar systems. The participants have highlighted numerous benefits of using solar energy, such as reduced costs, increased convenience, improved productivity, reliable energy access, and telecommunication services. However, solar PV systems are primarily limited to household lighting, phone charging, and powering televisions and radios; however, not for cooking purposes. The findings imply that governments in sub-Saharan Africa should provide training and guidance on the safe and effective use of solar PV systems, invest more in solar PV infrastructure to enable larger solar systems for cooking, refrigeration, and irrigation, and promote the use of solar energy through education and awareness campaigns to encourage greater adoption of solar energy.

Solar Maximum Power Point Tracking Algorithm Based on Wavelet Neural Network

With the development of human civilization, the shortage of resources and environmental pollution are increasing. Renewable energy is the only way to solve the problem of harmonious coexistence between human civilization and environment. More and more of them have come into our lives to reduce the burden of the earth and benefit mankind. Nowadays, due to the increasing gap of traditional power supply, solar energy has become a mainstream renewable energy, more and more applications, to provide us with green energy and improve our lives. The research on the application of solar energy system is of great academic value. This paper mainly studies the solar maximum power point tracking (MPPT) algorithm based on wavelet neural network (WNN). This paper analyzes several common maximum power tracking control methods, describes the structure design of WNN maximum power tracking control algorithm, and describes the structure and working principle of photovoltaic cells. In this paper, the output power of MPPT mode is analyzed and compared by simulating the use of solar photovoltaic system. In the meantime, the output voltage of solar charging panel in the charging process is studied. The experimental results show that the output power of the power supply in MPPT mode is kept at 0.2, and the output power of the solar panel is improved at every moment with the change of the external environment. At 9 o'clock, the output voltage of the solar panel is 3.6, and at 11 o'clock, the output voltage is 4.11.

Modelling of Solar PV under Varying Condition with an Improved Incremental Conductance and Integral Regulator

The introduction of solar photovoltaic (PV) systems would provide electricity accessibility to rural areas that are far from or have no access to the grid system. Various countries are planning to reduce their emissions from fossil fuel, due to its negative effects, by substituting with renewable energy resources. The use of solar PV systems is expanding globally because of growing energy demands and depleting fossil fuel reserves. Grid integration of the solar system is expected to increase further in the near future. However, the power output of solar PV systems is inherently intermittent, and depends on the irradiance and the temperature operation of the solar cell, resulting in a wide range of defects. Hence, it is vital to extract peak power from the solar panel in all conditions to provide constant power to the load. This paper presents a tracking control method of the peak output power of a solar PV system connected to a DC-DC boost converter using an improved incremental conductance and integral regulator (IC + IR). The research was carried out because the solar PV output is dependent on environmental parameters, such as solar insolation and temperature. Therefore, it is pertinent to forecast the peak power point in outdoor conditions and to operate at that point, so that solar PV can produce the highest output each time it is used. A peak power point strategy that maximizes the output of a solar PV array is proposed. This method establishes the maximum output operation point under the effects of the solar insolation and the module temperature. An automatic converter restoration scheme with block/de-block signal control is proposed to protect the converters from the higher phase current, total capacitor voltage deviation, grid disturbance, and fault current. The proposed scheme also tracks the peak power point (PPP) of the solar array with stable output voltage under varying operating conditions. It reduces the error signal and ripples at the PPP during instantaneous and incremental conductance to zero. In addition, it controls the solar PV system under constantly changing climatic conditions, and thus improves the system efficiency.

Analysis of integration processes of renewable energy technologies in the oil and gas industry

The modern energy market is characterized by the transformation of oil and gas companies in the direction of world energy decarbonization. The oil and gas industry diversifies its activities by combining traditional and renewable energy technologies in a single organizational structure. Oil and gas companies are investing heavily in renewable energy. The drive of the same equipment both with the help of renewable energy sources and by burning traditional hydrocarbons allows attracting the advantages and minimizing the individual disadvantages of using both directions of energy production. The presence of significant experience, developed infrastructure and skilled labor resources allows the renewable energy equipment use in the oil and gas fields of existing companies. The integration of renewable generation technologies into oil and gas is one way to meet the growing demand for energy while reducing environmental pollution. The modern oil and gas industry is characterized by the use of solar photovoltaic systems, wind turbines, concentrators of solar and geothermal energy, biofuels. The use of renewable energy sources contributes to improving the energy efficiency of well drilling, oil and gas production, methods of intensification of oil and gas production and refining. The Ukrainian oil and gas sector plans to expand its presence in the renewable energy market by producing biogas and hydrogen and attracting the existing gas transmission system for their transportation. Given the global trends of the economy decarbonization, one can predict the gradual transformation of oil and gas companies into energy ones.

Application of smart DC-Grid for efficient use of solar photovoltaic system in driving separately excited DC motor: Dynamic performance and techno-economic assessments

Solar energy is one of the solutions to the global threats - climate change, environmental pollution, fossil fuel depletion and high cost of energy - associated with increased energy demand. In this research, the techno-economic feasibility and dynamic performance assessment of a smart solar Photovoltaic (PV) Direct Current grid (DC-grid) powered Separately Excited Direct Current Motor (SEDCM) is presented. The energy mapping was done at Agbani City (6°18.3′N, 7°33.8′E), in Enugu State, Nigeria. Agbani city was identified to have a good amount of solar energy with an annual average solar radiation of 4.67 kWh/m 2 /d. The dynamic performance assessment of a smart solar PV DC-grid powered SEDCM was conducted with the help of MATLAB/SIMULINK software. The result show that a change in sun intensity affects the photon-generated current and it has effect on the open-circuit voltage of the solar panel. This change in the intensity can be compensated for by the use of a boost converter. The whole system was optimized in HOMER Pro simulation software to assess the techno-economic feasibility of the system. From the techno-economic study, it was observed that the proposed DC-grid PV system is feasible for the generation of electricity to power the SEDCM. The cost of energy was calculated and the categorized result from HOMER Pro shows that the capacity of the DC-grid PV system (35.67 kW) with 120 Surrette S-260 batteries gives the cheapest configuration. This configuration has a cost of energy of 0.11 $/kWh and a Net Present Cost (NPC) value of 0.048 million dollars and was used as optimum system configuration. Comparing the system with the national grid, the proposed DC-grid PV configuration has a cost saving of 35% with 1.679 gCO 2 ~eq/kWh greenhouse gas emission, while the national grid emits a significant amount of greenhouse gas up to 15,104 kg/y.

An efficient Equilibrium Optimizer for parameters identification of photovoltaic modules.

The use of solar photovoltaic systems (PVs) is increasing as a clean and affordable source of electric energy. The Pv cell is the main component of the PV system. To improve the performance, control, and evaluation of the PV system, it is necessary to provide accurate design and to define the intrinsic parameters of the solar cells. There are many methods for optimizing the parameters of the solar cells. The first class of methods is called the analytical methods that provide the model parameters using datasheet information or I–V curve data. The second class of methods is the optimization-based methods that define the problem as an optimization problem. The optimization problem objective is to minimize the error metrics and it is solved using metaheuristic optimization algorithms. The third class of methods is composed of a hybrid of both the analytical and the metaheuristic approaches, some parameters are computed by the analytical approach and the rest are found using metaheuristic optimization algorithms. Research in this area faces two challenges; (1) finding an optimal model for the parameters of the solar cells and (2) the lack of data about the photovoltaic cells. This paper proposes an optimization-based algorithm for accurately estimating the parameters of solar cells. It is using the Improved Equilibrium Optimizer algorithm (IEO). This algorithm is improved using the Opposition Based Learning (OBL) at the initialization phase of EO to improve its population diversity in the search space. Opposition-based Learning (OBL) is a new concept in machine learning inspired by the opposite relationship among entities. There are two common models for solar cells; the single diode model (SDM) and double diode model (DDM) have been used to demonstrate the capabilities of IEO in estimating the parameters of solar cells. The proposed methodology can find accurate solutions while reducing the computational cost. Compared to other existing techniques, the proposed algorithm yields less mean absolute error. The results were compared with seven optimization algorithms using data of different solar cells and PV panels. The experimental results revealed that IEO is superior to the most competitive algorithms in terms of the accuracy of the final solutions.

ANFIS Controlled Reactive Power Compensation Utilizing Grid-Connected Solar Photovoltaic System as PV-STATCOM

This article proposes Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Inference System (ANFIS) based control scheme for dual use of the grid-connected solar photovoltaic (PV) system as the active power source when irradiance is high and as static compensator (STATCOM) for reactive power compensation to the grid when the irradiance level is inadequate. This way the strategy results in optimal utilization of the converter circuit of the solar PV. Thus, the dual use of solar PV system brings in additional advantages in terms of enhanced power transmission capability of the grid. To examine the efficacy of the proposed control strategy, the system is modeled and analysed in using MATLAB/Simulink tool and also validated over real-time simulator (OPAL-RT-OP5700).

Effect of Inadequate Electrification on Nigeria’s Economic Development and Environmental Sustainability

In this study, the impact of the electricity crisis on the economic growth of Nigeria is presented. Unlike other existing studies that checked the effect of electricity consumption on economic development or environmental sustainability for different countries, the present study will further present a techno-economic analysis of a proffered solution to the imminent electricity crisis. Time-series regression models are used to analyze the effect of electricity consumption on economic development and environmental sustainability while RETScreen professional software is used to perform a techno-economic analysis and determine the feasibility of a 500-kW microgrid Solar Photovoltaic (PV) system integrated for electricity generation. From the analysis results, a strong positive correlation effect is evident between electricity consumption and GNI, as well as a strong negative correlation between electricity consumption and gross domestic savings. Also, strong positive correlation effects are evident in the case of carbon emissions by buildings, by the power industry, and by other combustion industries on electricity consumption in Nigeria. Considering the net present value, internal rate of return and payback periods, the use of solar PV systems for electricity generation is feasible in the 12 different locations in Nigeria studied in this research. The most feasible area for solar PV installation is the northern part of Nigeria as Gombe and Kaduna recorded a simple PBP and an equity PBP are 6.3 years and 7.4 years respectively.

Socio-economic and environmental impacts of rural electrification with Solar Photovoltaic systems: Evidence from southern Ethiopia

Lack of access to electricity is one of the major impediments to economic development and the provision of public services in rural/off-grid areas of developing countries. This study examines the drivers and impacts of rural electrification with Solar Photovoltaic (PV) systems in Ethiopia from a cross-sectional study of 605 rural households and direct field examination of 137 solar PVs/lanterns. Multiple linear regression and econometric analyses were used to analyse the data. Findings showed that the use of solar PV systems in rural Ethiopia is growing and its impact appears significant. A solar-electrified rural household could save the consumption of 43.68 L of kerosene and emission of 107 kg CO2 per year compared with a non-electrified one. This reduction in kerosene use and the access to electricity from solar PVs could enable a rural household to save between US$ 65 and $75 per year from avoided energy costs and mobile charging expenses. The study finds that Solar PVs could provide rural households with access to electricity for 3 to 5 h a day, reduce health damage from kerosene lamps; and allow micro-businesses to generate more income. Empirical results from a binomial logit, and multivariate probit analyses revealed that solar PV adoption is strongly influenced by several economic and non-economic factors. However, it was also found that the use and effectiveness of solar PV systems in rural/off-grid Ethiopia is faced with critical challenges from poor quality and counterfeit products in the market, high cost of quality-verified solar products, lack of after-sales maintenance services, and limited access to credit financing sources.

Studies on solar water pumping based micro-irrigation for sustainable vegetable cultivation

The growing demands of energy and water particularly in the present agricultural sector have necessitated the adoption of reliable, environment-friendly and water saving technologies so as to combat against the energy crisis and water stress in near future. It has been established that conventional sources of energy like oil, gas, coal etc. will not be able to provide the desired levels of energy security to mankind in foreseeable future. Hence, there is a global consensus for exploitation and utilization of different renewable energy resources. The search for new options should be eco-friendly as well as abundant in nature. Among the different available renewable energy resources, solar energy seems to be more promising and sustainable. Solar powered agricultural irrigation may be an attractive application for renewable energy in replacing fossil fuel powered irrigation devices to achieve energy security. The use of solar photovoltaic systems may provide good solution not only for all energy related problems of the present society but also perform excellently in terms of productivity, reliability, sustainability and environmental protection ability. Solar photovoltaic water pumping systems can provide water for irrigation without the need for any kind of fuel or the extensive maintenance as required by diesel and electric pump sets. Therefore, an attempt has been made to develop an affordable and portable solar PV water pumping system for irrigating vegetable crops in the state of Odisha. Micro-irrigation method through sprinkler system has been integrated with the solar PV device to achieve judicious utilization of water. Monthly income of Rs. 15,000/- throughout the year was possible by adopting remunerative tomato cultivation in 1 acre of land both during rabi and summer seasons in the year 2017 in coastal region of Odisha. Pay- back period of the developed set up was calculated to be only half year, due to which, it may be easily accepted by the small and marginal farmers of the state in spite of its high initial cost. The popularization of this technology would not only achieve assured water availability to the crops with improved water use efficiency measures by micro-sprinkler irrigation system compared to traditional flooded method of irrigation but also protect the environment against release of green house gases and noise pollution by the use of rising diesel and electric pump sets in the state.

Comparative customer economics on different financial options in support the adoption of residential rooftop photovoltaic in Thailand

The Thai Government has supported the use of solar photovoltaic systems for green electricity production toward the self-consumption policy since 2016. A photovoltaic support program with an installed capacity target of 100 Megawatt was announced in December 2018 to promote self-consumption and compensate for any excess photovoltaic generation at 1.68 Thai Baht/kilowatt-hour. However, the target was not achieved as a result of high upfront investment costs that are one of the main barriers in household application. To make solar photovoltaic systems more accessible to a larger group of users, financial mechanisms are required. The economic feasibility of financial options (cash, solar power purchasing agreement, solar leasing, solar loan) was analyzed for photovoltaic systems under the current Thai household solar rooftop scheme. The System Advisor Model, an open source techno-economic analysis tool, was employed to simulate photovoltaic production and cash flows to calculate the economic feasibility including the levelized cost of electricity, net present value, internal rate of return and payback period. Results showed that investment in a 3-kilowatt photovoltaic system with debt fraction of 50% and 100% cash was profitable, while investment in a 3-kilowatt photovoltaic system through a solar power purchasing agreement and leasing was not economically viable.

The Application of Solar Photovoltaic Power Generation System in Ships

Chen, L.; Li, X., and Xu, C.-X., 2019. The application of solar photovoltaic power generation system in ships. In: Gong, D.; Zhu, H., and Liu, R. (eds.), Selected Topics in Coastal Research: Engineering, Industry, Economy, and Sustainable Development. Journal of Coastal Research, Special Issue No. 94, pp. 525–529. Coconut Creek (Florida), ISSN 0749-0208.Nowadays, we are in the era of information technology explosion. Science and technology are various and changing with each passing day. All of these are responding positively to the continuously deepening innovative ideas throughout the country. It has become one of the most concerned green technologies on ships to use solar energy and other new energy power generation technology and electric propulsion technology to form integrated electric propulsion technology. Aiming at the application of solar photovoltaic system in ships, based on the introduction of the principle and mode of use of solar photovoltaic system, the application characteristics of solar photovoltaic system and its components in ships are analyzed, and the important characteristics of ship power grid based on solar photovoltaic system are discussed and summarized, which provides a basis for future system design and application. The results showed that the pollutants CO, NOX and HC showed a downward trend. With the further development of solar photovoltaic technology, the utilization of solar energy will be one of the key measures to realize green navigation for ships in the future.

The potential of solar photovoltaic systems for residential homes in Lagos city of Nigeria

The development and use of solar photovoltaic (PV) technologies worldwide is considered crucial towards fulfilling an increasing global energy demand and mitigating climate change. However, the potential of a solar PV-system is location specific, influenced by the local solar resource, energy demand and cost among other factors. The main aim of this study is to conduct a detailed assessment of the potential of solar PV-systems in residential buildings in Lagos Metropolitan Area, Nigeria. Nigeria has enormous solar energy potential, it is the most populous country in Africa and occupies a significant place in the development of Africa. Yet, it is a country with one of the lowest per capita electricity consumption in the world – at 149 kWh per capita for a population of about 170 million, about 7% of Brazil's and 3% of South Africa's. To achieve this goal, this study employed the survey of 150 residential buildings in three local government areas (LGAs) in Lagos State, Nigeria to obtain electric load data. HOMER Pro was used to size the PV-systems and to determine the levelized cost of electricity (LCOE). The computed energy results of the study for the base case scenario revealed the PV array, lead acid battery and the converter (inverter) of the PV-systems to be in the following range: 0.3–76 kW; 2 to 176 kWh; and 0.1–13.2 kW respectively. Economic analysis revealed a LCOE of the systems in the range of 0.398 USD/kWh to 0.743 USD/kWh. The use of PV-system generated electricity in the dwellings has potential for an annual reduction of greenhouse gas emissions in the range of 31.24 kgCO2eq to 7456.44 kgCO2eq. Clearly, the use of solar PV systems in residential buildings possesses potentials for enabling Nigeria to attain its climate change mitigation targets indicated in her Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

Development and sizing of a grid-connected solar PV power plant for Canaanland community

High costs of installation and maintenance as a result of storage units discourage the use of solar Photovoltaic system for power generation. To reduce these costs, Solar PV systems can be installed without storage units alongside conventional power generation systems. Such that the Solar systems cater for the daytime loads while the conventional generation system caters for loads at other times. This research paper explored the potential of installing Stand-Alone solar PV systems without storage to satisfy the daytime load demand of the Canaanland community. The load profile analysis of the Canaanland community was carried out from load consumption data and the solar power plants were designed based on this analysis. Simulation was carried out using the PV Syst 6.43 software and the result from the design was analyzed. The study revealed that the solar power plant will serve the daytime load of the community during the period of 10:30am-4:30pm daily satisfying the peak and base loads (5.16MW and 0.78MW) of the Canaanland community respectively.

Addressing Energy Poverty in India: A systems perspective on the role of localization, affordability, and saturation in implementing solar technologies

Decentralized solar photovoltaic (PV) systems have emerged as an option in unelectrified rural areas for clean lighting and reduced kerosene use. Despite benefits, there are significant barriers to implement and sustain solar PV systems because of inadequate understanding of the feedback between adoption, diffusion, and implementation processes in resource poor communities of low and middle income countries. We analyze the social-behavioral and solar lamp assembly and distribution processes involved in implementing a million solar lamps in rural India and present a novel system dynamics framework to understand solar lamp technology implementation in India and other countries of South Asia. Our framework of three inter-locked subsystems – Localization, Affordability, and Saturation – explains how localization, affordability, and saturation emerge from a structure of feedback mechanisms and interact to drive adoption and sustained use of solar PV systems in resource poor communities. A system dynamics approach highlights the importance of understanding feedback and interdependence of these factors, provides tangible insights for future decentralized solar lamp and solar home product deployments.

Performance analysis and investigation of a grid-connected photovoltaic installation in Morocco

Abstract The paper present an evaluation of a grid-connected photovoltaic (PV) system installed on the roof of a government building located in Tangier, Morocco. The experimental data was recorded from 1st January 2015 to December 2015 based on real time observation. The aim is to encourage the use of solar PV system for government, commercial and residence building in Morocco based on the obtained results. The system is made up of 20 modules of 250 Wp and one inverter of 5 kW. The assessed parameters of the PV installation includes energy output, final yield, modules temperature, efficiency module, performance ratio (PR) and others. The PV park supplied the grid with 6411.3 kWh during the year 2015. The final yield (Yf) ranged from 1.96 to 6.42 kWh/kWp, the performance ratio (PR) ranged from 58% to 98% and the annual capacity factor was found to be 14.84%. The final yield of PV installation is compared with other final yields of solar PV systems located at other places. Finally various power losses are given through a diagram loss.

A User Friendly Approach for Design and Economic Analysis of Standalone SPV System

This paper presents the use of solar energy for generation of electrical energy through solar pho-tovoltaic (SPV) system to meet the load requirement of a domestic building. Complete design and economic analysis of SPV system for different costs of SPV module is done and compared with grid electricity for with and without storage conditions. The results of the study encourage the use of SPV system for a residential building and show that SPV system is an economically viable option to meet the exponentially growing electricity requirement for household applications in India.

Socio-economic impact of solar home systems in rural Sri Lanka: a case-study

The use of solar photovoltaic systems of 25 W p to 50 W p (frequently called solar home systems, or SHSs) has been spreading fast in the rural areas of Sri Lanka as a source of energy used for domestic lighting, mainly because of the financial incentives provided by the donor agencies and aggressive marketing strategies of the SHS dealers in rural areas. This paper presents the outcome and the analysis of a study conducted with the objective of investigating the social, economic and environmental impact of SHSs in rural Sri Lanka. The study involved conducting a survey of 125 households having SHSs, in the Uva province of Sri Lanka, through personal visits. It was evident that the households are extremely satisfied with the technology that has replaced their kerosene lamps, which had been providing household lighting requirements. The quality of life, in terms of activities such as longer study hours of children, longer TV watching hours for the family and lessening the risk of fatal kerosene lamp accidents, has improved with the introduction of the SHSs. It is concluded that the large-scale penetration of solar home systems in Sri Lanka has helped rural communities both in terms of improved socio-economic conditions and reduced adverse environmental impacts, contrary to the belief that the financial burden of such systems imposed on the families outweighs the benefits. But when comparing the benefits of SHSs against the extension of the national grid, the country needs to seriously examine its options for the areas currently targeted by SHS dealers.