Use Of Plant Proteins Research Articles

Plant protein in material extrusion 3D printing: Formation, plasticization, prospects, and challenges

Use of plant proteins for material extrusion 3D printing presents an exciting opportunity to expand current material and additive manufacturing applications. Plant protein-based materials possess attractive thermomechanical properties, which make them prospective sources for use in 3D printing. This review provides insights into the current state of protein-based material properties, specifically in the context of material extrusion 3D printing applications. Information is drawn from the literature on protein-based film formation via casting, compression, and extrusion, as well as material characterization and modifications. Material formation and plasticization are discussed, and current material formation and characterization methods are reviewed. Mechanical and thermal properties are examined and considered with respect to processing conditions and plasticizer-protein interactions, using soy and zein protein as model systems, and are related to 3D printing conditions and material requirements. Alternative feed proteins are also examined based on their material properties, and prospective protein sources for extrusion 3D printing are identified. Challenges in using plant proteins as materials for extrusion 3D printing include high moisture uptake, 3D printing inherent operating conditions, and plasticizer selection. Chemical and physical modifications are reviewed that could potentially address these challenges.

Novel electromagnetic separation technology for the production of pea protein concentrate

Use of plant protein is of growing interest to address consumer demands and sustainability of future food supply. In this study, Lorentz force-assisted charge carrier separation enhancement strategy was employed to separate pea protein (Pisum sativum L.). The magnetic field is generated by parallel magnets, 20 cm long, 10 cm wide and 10 cm apart, and perpendicular to the electric field formed between parallel electrodes. The charged particles would cut the magnetic induction lines during the movement and were subjected to a Lorentz force towards the negative electrode, which improves the highest purity and yield of the protein concentrate by 3.6% (db) and 1.8% respectively, over exclusively triboelectric separation. After the ultrafine milling, air pre-classification and optimized electromagnetic separation, the purity of the resulting pea protein concentrate was increased from 27.8 ± 0.6% to 72.1 ± 0.8% (db) with a yield of 9.2 ± 1.2%. This study pointed out the value of magnetic field used as an auxiliary means in the electrostatic separation.

The use of plant proteins in the technology of fermented dairy-free products

It is proposed to use plant raw materials in the production of fermented products that do not contain milk. The possibility of using oats and buckwheat as milk substitutes is shown. Experimental samples of fermented products were obtained and their sensory, physical and chemical and microbiological parameters were studied.

Dietary supplementation of β-glucan, inulin and emodin modulates antioxidant response and suppresses intestinal inflammation of grass carp (Ctenopharyngodon idellus)

Excessive use of plant protein can cause various diseases, and functional additives have been proven to improve the health of aquatic fish but its underlying mechanism is still unclear. A 60-day trial was conducted to explore the action mechanism of β-glucan (1 g/kg), inulin (1 g/kg) and emodin (0.1 g/kg) supplementation improving the health of grass carp (initial weight 27.19 ± 0.05 g) fed low fishmeal diet. Our results indicated that emodin exhibited a positive impact on the growth of grass carp. Diet with β-glucan, inulin and emodin displayed hepatoprotective effects through the suppression of activities of serum alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase and γ‐glutamyl transaminase, and β-glucan and inulin exerted hypocholesterolemic effects simultaneously. High level of antioxidant parameters in serum and intestine tissue confirmed the antioxidant property of β-glucan, inulin and emodin on grass carp, companying by a notable reduction in malondialdehyde content. Modulation of antioxidant response by β-glucan, inulin and emodin supplementation was to activate Nrf2 signaling pathway and up-regulate the expression of antioxidant genes including catalase and copper/zinc superoxide dismutase. Additionally, TLR4 signaling pathway was notably inhibited by three additive diets, and the transcription level of pro-inflammatory cytokines like IL-1β, TNF-α, and/or IL-6 was dramatically suppressed in intestine tissue simultaneously. Afterward, an enhancement of intestinal barrier function was observed in fish fed β-glucan, inulin and emodin by inducing the overexpression of junction proteins such as Occludin, ZO3, ZO1, and/or ZO2. The above results documented that diet with β-glucan, inulin and emodin could exhibit beneficial impacts on the health of grass carp through the improvement in antioxidant capacity, suppression of inflammatory response, and enhancement of intestinal barrier function.

Influence of rice protein hydrolysate on lipid oxidation stability and physico-chemical properties of linseed oil microparticles obtained through spray-drying

In recent years, the use of plant protein in various food applications is an increasing trend in the food industry. The present study aimed to evaluate the effect of rice protein hydrolysate as an encapsulating material on lipid oxidation stability and the physico-chemical properties of linseed oil microparticles obtained through spray-drying. Rice protein isolate was hydrolyzed to an 8% degree of hydrolysis by the proteases Alcalase and Flavourzyme. Linseed oil was microencapsulated using protein hydrolysate or intact protein combined with maltodextrin. Sorption isotherms and glass transition temperature of microparticles were determined by the static gravimetric method and differential scanning calorimetry. Lipid oxidation stability of microparticles, evaluated by peroxide value, was carried out at 45 °C for 55 days. The sorption isotherms corresponded to the characteristics of BET II type isotherm and the GAB model was used to calculate thermodynamic properties of water adsorption. The monolayer moisture content values were between 3.76 and 4.96 g/100 g dry matter. Protein hydrolysates obtained by Alcalase and Flavourzyme did not significantly depress the glass transition temperature of microparticles (~98 °C and 103 °C, respectively) and did not change the structure of microparticles. On the contrary, the Alcalase protein hydrolysate improved the protection of the microparticles against lipid oxidation in approximately 95% when compared to the intact protein. This result can be due to the higher antioxidant capacity of Alcalase protein hydrolysate (3239 μmol TE/g protein) when compared to the intact protein (352 μmol TE/g protein).

The use of plant proteins in the production of food for humans

The increasing preference of vegetarian and vegan diets has led to the development of new and diverse food formulations based on plant proteins with high nutritive value. Industrial side-products such as functional potato proteins and non-functional corn zein fractions, along with pea proteins are promising sources of protein in food applications. The main goal of recent researches was to improve the functionality of zein, a by-product of the starch industry, and usage of potato protein along with pea protein by enzyme-mediated covalent crosslinking, and to enable its usage in food applications. It has been demonstrated for the first time the functionalization of zein in concentrated oil-in-water emulsions. Emulsions comprising 40% oil were fabricated using enzymatic crosslinking of potato protein or pea protein solubilized in the aqueous phase and zein solubilized in the oil phase. It has been shown that bacterial tyrosinase isolated and purified from Bacillus megaterium plays a crucial role in the gel-like structure formation of zein-potato protein or zein-pea protein stabilized emulsions. The tyrosinasecrosslinked emulsions were stable over a month without noticeable separation, compared to the non-crosslinked emulsions. The increase in stability is attributed to the formation of covalent bonds between potato and/or pea proteins and zein prtein fractions. Additionally, the presence of tyrosinase led to better stability, increased viscosity and paste like structure compared to zein-pea protein emulsion without tyrosinase. Zein and potato protein or pea protein complement each other in their amino acid composition and thus provide complete nutritional value to consumers. Enzymatic covalent bond formation in zein-pea protein or zein-potato protein complexes could be an important approach to design and tailor different vegan or vegetarian emulsion-based foods.

Apparent digestibility coefficients of brewer's by-products used in feeds for rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) and gilthead seabream (Sparus aurata)

A trial was conducted to test the effect of partial replacement of fishmeal by two brewery industry byproducts, yeast and spent grain, included in isoproteic (41% CP) and isolipidic (22% CL) diets for gilthead sea bream (Sparus aurata) and rainbow trout (Oncorhyncus mykiss), having in mind the availability of these byproducts. A first step before an ingredient is included in a commercial feed is to evaluate the nutritional quality of these raw materials by measuring their digestibility. Thus, the apparent digestibility coefficients of the diets and ingredients were determined after a 30 days feeding trial and faecal collection. Apparent digestibility coefficients of these by products in the case of rainbow trout varied between 75 and 88% whereas for gilthead seabream was between 71 and 88%. According to the results obtained, the inclusion of 20–30% of brewers' spent yeast and spent grain in the feed for carnivorous fish either from fresh (rainbow trout) or marine (gilthead seabream) gave similar results to a feed with fish meal as the main protein source and show a good protein, lipid and amino acid digestibility. Taking into account that these by-products are produced in large quantities in Europe, they can be a potential source of protein to reduce the use of plant proteins or fish/animal byproducts (trimmings) and increase the sustainability of both sectors, brewery industry and aquaculture.

Use of solid state fermented bambara nut meal as substitute of fishmeal in the diets of African catfishClarias gariepinus

The use of plant proteins in substituting fishmeal (FM) is mitigated by several anti nutritional factors (ANF) like phytic acid, non starch polysaccharides and protease inhibitors. Fermentation of the plant ingredients can reduce the ANF and improve feed utilization and growth rate of fish. We produced five isonitrogenous and isocaloric diets using solid state fermented bambaranut meal (BNM). Fermented BNM substituted FM in diets of African catfish Clarias gariepinus. The FM: BNM inclusion percentages of the diets were, F1, 50:5; F2, 35:20; F3, 20:35; F4, 5:50 and F5, 0:56. There was a control feed labelled as F6. Feed F6 was a variant of F1 but with non fermented BNM. Fingerling African catfish C. gariepinus with average weight 5.14±0.05 g were fed with the diets for 56 days. Specific growth rate (SGR) was best for the catfish fed with F1, 7.82±0.25 % day-1, followed by those fed with F6, 7.35±0.24 % day-1. There were, however, no differences in SGR of F2, 7.26±0.18 % day-1 and F6. The food conversion ratio was lowest and best for the catfish fed with F1, 1.24±0.19 and F2 1.34±0.06. The growth and nutritional performance of fish fed with F2 were as good as F1 and cost-effective. Feeds made from fermented BNM had better FCR than those from raw BNM. Fermentation increased the protein and amino acid content of the BNM and the catfish gained more weight than from raw BNM. The effects of ANF seem to be highly reduced in solid-state fermented BNM thereby enhancing catfish growth.

Use of Plant Proteins as Microencapsulating Agents of Bioactive Compounds Extracted from Annatto Seeds (Bixa orellana L.).

This study aimed to assess the thermal stability of the bioactive compounds from annatto seed extract, encapsulated by ionic gelation using quinoa proteins, lentil proteins, soy proteins, and sodium caseinate as carrying materials. The 10.0% aqueous dispersions of the different proteins (carriers) were prepared and mixed with the annatto seed extract. The dispersions were then extruded into a calcium chloride solution to induce the extract encapsulation. The capsules were characterized by encapsulation efficiency, particle size, infrared transmission spectroscopy, confocal microscopy, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The antioxidant and antimicrobial activities, the polyphenol compounds, and bixin content from the free and encapsulated extract were assessed once stored for 12 d at different temperatures (4 °C, 25 °C, and 65 °C). The results demonstrated the ability of the proteins to encapsulate the annatto extract with encapsulation efficiencies ranging from 58% to 80%, where the protein structure and amino acid content were the relevant factors to obtain high encapsulation efficiencies. The free extracts stored at 65 °C for 12 d experienced a degradation of bixin and polyphenol compounds, respectively. Conversely, the encapsulated extract had degradations from ~34.00% to ~4.05% for polyphenol compounds and ~20.0% for bixin, respectively. These proteins have a potential encapsulation capacity of annatto extract by ionic gelation.

The effect of dietary vitamin D3, minerals (Ca, P) and plant-protein sources in the development of systemic granulomatosis in meagre (Argyrosomus regius, Asso, 1801)

Systemic Granulomatosis (SG) affects the majority of cultured meagre (Argyrosomus regius). This pathological condition, whose aetiology is still not known, is identified by multiple granulomas in a variety of organs that become calcified and necrotic with time. The available evidence supports the hypothesis that SG is a metabolic disorder associated with nutritional imbalances, and the present study examined the role of dietary vitamin D3, minerals (Ca, P) and plant-protein sources in the development of the disease. The use of plant-protein in the diet formulation exacerbated the progression of SG, while vitamin D3 did not prevent its occurrence. On the other hand, the severity of SG was improved by increasing the P content in the feed. However, the exact irritant that causes this inflammatory response in meagre is still unknown and more research needs to examine other nutritional factors.

Gel properties of potato protein and the isolated fractions of patatins and protease inhibitors – Impact of drying method, protein concentration, pH and ionic strength

The use of plant protein in food products is increasing. Potato protein gelation is scarcely documented, therefore potato protein gel properties were tested for two whole protein isolates (freeze dried or spray dried) and the purified sub-fractions, protease inhibitors and patatins. The effects of protein concentrations, 8 or 15% (w/w), pH-range of 3.0–7.5, and 2 different levels of ionic strength; low (15 mM NaCl) or high (200 mM NaCl) on heat induced gel properties was studied by oscillatory rheology and by uniaxial compression. Spray drying did not impair gel properties of the whole protein isolates, with the spray dried isolate actually showing higher gel strength at most conditions.For whole protein isolates, gel strength expressed as the storage modulus (G′) had a minimum at pH 4.7 at both high and low salt. The isolated patatin fraction showed a similar trend at low salt, but at high salt the gel strength was very low at pH 3, with progressively higher values at pH 5 and pH 7.5. The protease inhibitor fraction gelled best at low salt and pH values below pH 3.3, while higher pH resulted in very weak gels with a 10-fold decrease in G’. Gel appearance was affected by protein sample, pH, and ionic strength. Both whole protein isolates and the protease inhibitor fraction formed translucent gels at pH 3.0 and ionic strength 15 mM, while patatin formed translucent gels at both pH 3.0 and pH 7.5 at low salt concentration. All other conditions resulted in opaque gels.

Use of pea and rice protein isolates as source of meat extenders in the development of chicken nuggets

Pea protein isolates (PPI) and rice protein isolates (RPI) were used as meat extenders at different concentration levels (3%, 6%, 9%, and 12%) for the development of chicken nuggets and evaluation of their physicochemical and sensory properties. Protein value of pea and rice protein-enriched nuggets ranged between 32.84%–39.31% and 39.23%–48.49%, respectively, which was high as compared to the control (34.99%). Moisture level ranged between 53.72% and 59.02%. Addition of proteins did not show any effect on pH and ash contents of nuggets. All the treatments displayed significant increase in water holding capacity and decrease in cooking loss compared to the control samples. Cooking loss in PPI and RPI extended nuggets was found between 5.01%–11.12% and 3.85%–7.54%, respectively. There was no significant difference in the textural characteristics of extended nuggets. All treatments involving RPI gave high scores for “overall acceptability” of sensory score. However, PPI showed substantial issue in flavor in nuggets. Practical application Food insecurity has become the biggest challenge of the developing countries as about 60% of the world population is suffering from protein deficiency. The leading factor responsible for the unavailability of meat to poor peoples is the high cost of meat and meat products. Increasing population, uncertain crop yield, and high cost of animal-based products have prompted the food industry to identify non-meat protein sources to incorporate in traditional meat formulations. So, inclusion of vegetable proteins like rice and pea proteins in meat formulations not only enhance the nutritional value but also provide a vehicle to promote the use of plant proteins to maintain target protein intake. There is a need to find economical sources of protein having positive impact on sensory properties of meat. In this regard, pea and rice protein isolates were used in order to prepare good quality and nutritious product with acceptable sensory score.

Emerging Camelina Protein: Extraction, Modification, and Structural/Functional Characterization

AbstractCamelina sativa, a sustainable oilseed crop, is a novel source of plant protein. The aim of this work was to evaluate two protein extraction approaches, alkaline and salt extraction, and determine their impact on the structural and functional properties of camelina protein. Protein yield, content, structural characteristics, and functional properties of the produced camelina protein concentrates (CPC, 70–80% protein) and camelina protein hydrolysates were assessed and compared to reference proteins, whey protein isolate and soy protein isolate (SPI). Compared to alkaline pH extraction, data showed that salt extraction produces less denatured and more functional CPC, composed mainly of cruciferin and napin proteins. The functionality of the salt‐extracted CPC was comparable and sometimes better than that of SPI. Specifically, the solubility (~70%) of the salt‐extracted CPC at pH 3.4 was significantly (P < 0.05) higher than that (~50%) of SPI. Additionally, salt‐extracted CPC had significantly higher emulsification capacity and foaming capacity than SPI. On the other hand, the gelation property of CPC was inferior to that of SPI, an observation attributed to the molecular size of camelina protein compared to soy protein. Upon hydrolysis of CPC with Aspergillus oryzae protease, a limited benefit to solubility was noted at pH 7 postthermal treatment. Overall, results revealed the potential of camelina as a novel source of functional plant protein that might gain a position in the protein market place, and possibly compete with soy protein for several applications targeting the use of plant proteins.

Solubilization of industrial grade plant protein by enzymatic hydrolysis monitored by vibrational and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy: A feasibility study

Protein hydrolysates are of great interest in the food industry due to their nutritional and functional properties, but their use often implies solubilization in water and therefore hamper the use of plant proteins with inherent low water solubility. Protein solubility in water can be modified by enzymatic hydrolysis, but during this process several collateral properties of the protein hydrolysates changes. It is therefore important to determine the end-point of the process and to monitor its development. In this feasibility study, we demonstrated the potential of different spectroscopic techniques (1H NMR and IR) coupled with chemometrics analysis in monitoring the hydrolysis of five different industrial grade plant proteins by the enzyme Alcalase. Logarithmic modeling of the PCA (Principal Component Analysis) scores confirmed that they can represent a measurement of the solubilized protein material released and resulted in kinetic parameters describing the suitability of protein sources as substrates for the hydrolysis. This way, we showed that a qualitative evaluation of the degree of hydrolysis is possible using fast at-line technologies and PCA.

A Chitin-binding Protein Purified from Moringa oleifera Seeds Presents Anticandidal Activity by Increasing Cell Membrane Permeability and Reactive Oxygen Species Production.

Candida species are opportunistic pathogens that infect immunocompromised and/or immunosuppressed patients, particularly in hospital facilities, that besides representing a significant threat to health increase the risk of mortality. Apart from echinocandins and triazoles, which are well tolerated, most of the antifungal drugs used for candidiasis treatment can cause side effects and lead to the development of resistant strains. A promising alternative to the conventional treatments is the use of plant proteins. M. oleifera Lam. is a plant with valuable medicinal properties, including antimicrobial activity. This work aimed to purify a chitin-binding protein from M. oleifera seeds and to evaluate its antifungal properties against Candida species. The purified protein, named Mo-CBP2, represented about 0.2% of the total seed protein and appeared as a single band on native PAGE. By mass spectrometry, Mo-CBP2 presented 13,309 Da. However, by SDS-PAGE, Mo-CBP2 migrated as a single band with an apparent molecular mass of 23,400 Da. Tricine-SDS-PAGE of Mo-CBP2 under reduced conditions revealed two protein bands with apparent molecular masses of 7,900 and 4,600 Da. Altogether, these results suggest that Mo-CBP2 exists in different oligomeric forms. Moreover, Mo-CBP2 is a basic glycoprotein (pI 10.9) with 4.1% (m/m) sugar and it did not display hemagglutinating and hemolytic activities upon rabbit and human erythrocytes. A comparative analysis of the sequence of triptic peptides from Mo-CBP2 in solution, after LC-ESI-MS/MS, revealed similarity with other M. oleifera proteins, as the 2S albumin Mo-CBP3 and flocculating proteins, and 2S albumins from different species. Mo-CBP2 possesses in vitro antifungal activity against Candida albicans, C. parapsilosis, C. krusei, and C. tropicalis, with MIC50 and MIC90 values ranging between 9.45–37.90 and 155.84–260.29 μM, respectively. In addition, Mo-CBP2 (18.90 μM) increased the cell membrane permeabilization and reactive oxygen species production in C. albicans and promoted degradation of circular plasmid DNA (pUC18) from Escherichia coli. The data presented in this study highlight the potential use of Mo-CBP2 as an anticandidal agent, based on its ability to inhibit Candida spp. growth with apparently low toxicity on mammalian cells.

Effect of Phytase Enzyme on Growth Boost in the Artificial Feed Made of Plant Protein to Shorten Production Time of Giant Tiger Prawn [Penaeus Monodon, (Fabricus 1798)

The use of plant protein in the artificial feed needs to be reckoned since plant protein contains phytate acid. To solve the problem is by adding phytase enzyme. This study aims to identify effect of phytase enzyme in the artificial feed and determine optimal dose of phytase enzyme on feed digestibility, nutrient efficiency utilization, and growth of giant tiger prawn (Penaeus monodon). The shrimp used in the study was giant tiger prawn (P. monodon) with the average weight of (1.19 ± 0.06) g per shrimp and the density of one shrimp per L. Methodology used in this study was experimental treatments with complete random design. The study consisted of four treatments and three repetitions. The treatments were by adding phytase enzyme in the different doses, namely: A (0 FTU · kg–1 diet), B (500 FTU · kg–1 diet), C (1 000 FTU · kg–1 diet) and D (1 500 FTU · kg–1 diet). Data collected were from variables of digestibility raw protein (DRP), digestibility total protein (DTP), nutrient efficiency utilization (NEU), relative growth rate (RGR), survival rate (SR) of giant tiger prawn (P. monodon) and water quality. The results show that the treatments significantly (p < 0.01) affected on the DRP, DTP, NEU, and RGR; however, they did not significantly (p > 0.05) influence on the survival rate. The optimum dose of phytase enzym for feed digestibility, feed utilization and the growth of giant tiger prawn (P. monodon) was 1 000 FTU · kg–1 feed. The water quality was still in the viable range for giant tiger prawn cultivation.

Haustorium Formation in Medicago truncatula Roots Infected by Phytophthora palmivora Does Not Involve the Common Endosymbiotic Program Shared by Arbuscular Mycorrhizal Fungi and Rhizobia.

In biotrophic plant-microbe interactions, microbes infect living plant cells, in which they are hosted in a novel membrane compartment, the host-microbe interface. To create a host-microbe interface, arbuscular mycorrhizal (AM) fungi and rhizobia make use of the same endosymbiotic program. It is a long-standing hypothesis that pathogens make use of plant proteins that are dedicated to mutualistic symbiosis to infect plants and form haustoria. In this report, we developed a Phytophthora palmivora pathosystem to study haustorium formation in Medicago truncatula roots. We show that P. palmivora does not require host genes that are essential for symbiotic infection and host-microbe interface formation to infect Medicago roots and form haustoria. Based on these findings, we conclude that P. palmivora does not hijack the ancient intracellular accommodation program used by symbiotic microbes to form a biotrophic host-microbe interface.

Replacement of dietary soy- with air classified faba bean protein concentrate alters the hepatic transcriptome in Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) parr

The production of carnivorous fish such as Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) is dependent on the availability of high quality proteins for feed formulations. For a number of nutritional, strategic and economic reasons, the use of plant proteins has steadily increased over the years, however a major limitation is associated with the presence of anti-nutritional factors and the nutritional profile of the protein concentrate. Investigating novel raw materials involves understanding the physiological consequences associated with the dietary inclusion of protein concentrates. The primary aim of the present study was to assess the metabolic response of salmon to increasing inclusion of air-classified faba bean protein concentrate (BPC) in feeds as a replacement for soy protein concentrate (SPC). Specifically, we tested treatments with identical contents of fishmeal (222.4gkg-1) and progressively higher inclusion of BPC (0gkg-1, 111.8gkg-1, 223.6gkg-1, 335.4gkg-1, 447.2gkg-1) substituting SPC. This study demonstrated a dose-dependent metabolic response to a plant ingredient and was the first to compare the nutrigenomic transcriptional responses after substitution of terrestrial feed ingredients such as BPC and SPC without withdrawal of marine ingredients. It was found that after eight weeks a major physiological response in liver was only evident above 335.4gkg-1 BPC and included decreased expression of metabolic pathways, and increased expression of genes regulating transcription and translation processes and the innate immune response. Furthermore, we showed that the nutritional stress caused by BPC resembled, at least at hepatic transcriptional level, that caused by soybean meal (included as a positive control in our experimental design). The outcomes of the present study suggested that Atlantic salmon parr might efficiently utilize moderate substitution of dietary SPC with BPC, with the optimum inclusion level being around 120gkg-1in the type of feeds tested here.

Review: Potential Use of Plant Proteins and Feather Keratin as Sizing Agents for Polyester-Cotton

This review assesses the potential of using plant proteins (wheat gluten and soy proteins) and chicken feather keratin as sizing agents for polyester/cotton (P/C) fabrics. Sizing (slashing) is a critical and essential process required for weaving fabrics. Poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA) is a traditional size for P/C yarns since PVA readily dissolves in water, provides good sizing performance, and is easily desizeable. However, PVA released from textile effluent treatment affects water organisms. Protein-based sizes required higher percent add-on to provide strength similar to PVA, but had excellent desizing, even at room temperature using low liquor ratios. Similarly, protein-based sizes degraded easily in activated sludge with COD and BOD5 values well within the prescribed limits. Plant proteins and feather keratin show promise to replace PVA for sizing P/C fabrics.

Atlantic Salmon (Salmo salar): The “Super-Chicken” of the Sea?

In this article, the definition of sustainability is discussed, particularly in relation to the use of marine feed resources. The current review gives an overview of the development of Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) aquaculture and how it has evolved due to changes in legal and management framework conditions. Atlantic salmon production is characterized with high utilization of nutrients, a high yield of production, and a large demand for rendered by-products. All of these factors compare favorably to production of most terrestrial farm animals. Historically, salmon feed has contained fishmeal and fish oil as the primary protein and fat source. Rising demand for feed ingredients has not increased pressure on forage fish resources. Rather, there has been an increased use of plant protein and fat sources. Increased utilization of plant ingredients may not be as sustainable as often claimed. Provided that marine harvest is carried out within legal frames, harvesting the marine ecosystem is a sustainable operation, and at present, the only significant source of long chain n-3 fatty acids. It is concluded that Atlantic salmon farming can be compared to raising a marine “super chicken” being among the most sustainable meat products in the world food market.