Use Of Non-timber Forest Products Research Articles

Sociocultural Factors and Enabling Policies for Non-timber Forest Products-based Microenterprise Development

Over 3,000 plant species produce economically significant products known as non-timber forest products (NTFPs). Their use and trade are integral components of local economies and culture. Governments and policy makers have overlooked the importance of NTFPs as an enterprise for a long time due to various reasons. However, recent studies have shown their potential. Policies concerning NTFPs were often formulated without addressing enterprises or rural livelihood; as a result, they usually failed to provide adequate incentives. In addition, they were often conflicting, causing stagnation. Very few states had a definite procedure to govern the exploitation of NTFPs, though most had rules for timber extraction and marketing. As with policy, direct institutional support requires co-ordination among the agencies that deal with non-wood resources and NTFP producers. The Joint Forest Management (JFM) illustrates one mode of government collaboration with communities to manage resources and share benefits. The intangible, non-economic roles of NTFPs can be more important and even provide a foundation for the economic roles that development programmes usually address. The commercialisation of forest produce seems to marginalise certain people, especially the lower classes. Sociocultural issues play an important role in ascertaining the success of Small Scale Enterprises (SSEs) and the sustainability of NTFP resource base. Policy makers should be made aware of the nature of historical and cultural patterns of NTFP use and its implications. By providing communities with technical, financial, managerial, marketing and training support, they will have a new economic incentive to conserve the resource base of their raw material, thus conserving the biological diversity of their area for the benefit of all. It will require vision and creative imagination on the part of the political leaders and administrative managers who are responsible for the effective delivery of programmes and activities to the people.

Assessing Sustainability of Nontimber Forest Product Extractions: How Fire Affects Sustainability

Sustainable use of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) can be affected by levels of extractions as well as by other anthropogenic influences such as fire and grazing. We examined the effects of fire on the demography of Phyllanthus emblica, an important NTFP in the forests of Biligiri Rangan Hills, India. We then assessed demographic responses to the combined effects of fire and current fruit harvesting patterns. Fruits of Phyllanthus are commercially harvested by an indigenous forest dwelling people. Using matrix population models, we compared demographic indices across a chronosequence of time since last fire. Population growth rates (λ) ranged from 0.7692 to 1.1443 across the five times since last fire. λ was the lowest at times since last fire of 2 and 3 yr. Frequent fires increased time to maturity by altering growth and survival rates, thereby causing a demographic shift from growth to regressions or negative growth. Elasticity analysis revealed that stasis of adults makes the biggest contribution to λ. Simulations of periodic and stochastic fire regimes suggest that higher λ and population persistence can be achieved at fire-return intervals of ≥7 and ≥9 yr, respectively. These fire-return intervals became longer when the simulations included harvesting and fire. Extinction probabilities under the current fire regimes (every 2–3 yr) suggest that populations will decline to lower densities. Our findings provide critical information for developing guidelines for sustainable use and management of NTFPs in Biligiri Rangan Hills, and demonstrate the need to incorporate various human-generated physical regimes in assessing sustainability of NTFPs.

The Role of non-timber forest products as safety-nets: A review of evidence with a focus on South Africa

Poor, rural communities are vulnerable to adversity. To secure their livelihoods, people adopt multiple livelihood strategies, including using non-timber forest products (NTFPs). NTFPs have been identified as important to rural livelihoods, as an alternative land-use option as well as in fulfilling an important safety-net function although empirical evidence on the latter’s strength is limited. Whilst NTFPs may contribute towards alleviating poverty, this safety-net function needs more critical and quantitative investigation. This includes the establishment of an applicable definition so this function can be communicated to policy makers and taken into account in national poverty alleviation strategies and, in attempts to promote resource-conserving behaviour by highlighting the value of natural resources (including NTFPs) compared to alternative land-use options. Poverty in rural households is complex and households are vulnerable to a range of shocks. During adversity households can turn to a range of possible safety-nets. What determines the use of NTFPs as a safety-net, how this safety-net function manifests and the strength of this function is poorly understood and there is need for further investigation.

Global patterns and trends in the use and management of commercial NTFPs: Implications for livelihoods and conservation

Understanding of the role and potential of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) for livelihood improvement and conservation has been hindered by a lack of a clear theoretical framework and a functional typology of cases. To help fill this gap, we did a comparative analysis of 61 cases of commercial NTFP production in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. Cases were documented using a standardized set of descriptors organized into categories describing various aspects of the production-to-consumption system. Exploratory analysis yielded useful case groupings by (a) household economic strategy and (b) NTFP production strategy. These groups and their key characteristics are used as a basis for discussing the development and conservation implications of NTFPs.

Household wealth status and natural resource use in the Kat River valley, South Africa

Much work has demonstrated the significant role and value of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the livelihoods of rural people in southern Africa and elsewhere. The findings provide a mean or composite picture, averaged across the sample households within each community. Yet, within any given community, there is significant socio-economic differentiation. It is important to acknowledge such differentiation when considering policy and management interventions to support rural livelihoods and promote sustainable resource use. This paper reports on a study in South Africa, the objective of which was to explore wealth-related differences and similarities in the use and value of NTFPs. Data on NTFP consumption, purchase, and sale were collected from households in three rural villages. Households were divided into three wealth classes and patterns of NTFPs use between the classes examined. There was no difference in the proportions of households in each wealth class using NTFPs, nor the total number of NTFPs used per household. Yet, there was some supporting evidence that poorer households derive greater benefits from NTFPs than do wealthy or intermediate households. One clear difference was that, with increasing wealth, households purchased significantly more NTFPs, and a greater proportion of wealthy households did so. Conversely, a greater proportion of poor households were involved in the sale of one or more NTFPs, and they sold a greater number per household, compared to wealthy and intermediate households. Detailed examination of use and value of four NTFPs (fuelwood, wild fruits, edible herbs, and grass hand brushes) revealed that in all instances, the poorest households used more of the resource per capita than the other wealth classes. This was not the case for comparisons based on the total household as the unit of analysis. Gross annual direct-use value did not differ between the wealth classes for any of the four NTFPs examined, at the household level. But on a per capita basis, a significantly higher gross annual direct-use value was evident within poorer households for fuelwood and edible herbs. The significance of these differences is discussed.

Protecting India's forests: The effectiveness of forest protection committees, the case of southern west Bengal

Forest protection committees (FPCs) form the core of joint forest management in the open access forests of West Bengal, India, and proliferated enormously during the 1980s. However, their impact in terms of forest regeneration has been marginal. It thus appears necessary to take a good look at how FPCs function, how effective they are and how they can work better. With this objective in mind, we have collected data over a cross section of 20% of the FPCs in two districts of Southern West Bengal, representing different levels of functioning (good, moderate and bad). We have regressed forest status (measured with the help of ecological tools) against two sets of variables – socio-economic aspects and operational features of the FPC. The results, among other things, indicate the significance of three factors – benefits from the sale or use of non-timber forest products, the frequency of and attendance at FPC meetings and finally, the capacity of the FPC to resolve internal conflicts. The regression exercise, other statistical exercises and a close look at other non-cardinal aspects of the way an FPC functions lead us to a set of policy prescriptions.

THE SCOPE FOR IMPROVING RURAL LIVELIHOODS THROUGH NON-TIMBER FOREST PRODUCTS: AN EVOLVING RESEARCH AGENDA

ABSTRACT The previously alleged commercialisation-conservation-development links involving non-timber forest products (NTFP) need reconsideration. NTFPs can play an important role in rural livelihood strategies and can contribute to sustained forested landscapes in various tropical areas, but there is no simple answer to how important NTFPs arc in rural livelihoods. The emerging picture we describe is of a diversified research approach towards forest and NTFP use, with more attention being paid to NTFP sources other than natural forests and to the broader socio-economic and spatial context in which forest use occurs. The new ‘resource-in-context’ approach combines insights into community-level creativity and livelihood dynamics with those of macro-economic and spatial processes, which provides a more realistic assessment of the development and conservation potential of NTFPs.

Rain forest ‘conservation-through-use’? Chambira palm fibre extraction and handicraft production in a land-constrained community, Peruvian Amazon

Does the use of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) lead to species conservation and protection of the tropical rain forest? This paper examines the use and fate of the chambira palm (Astrocaryum chambira) – a prime candidate for ‘conservation-through-use’– around a traditional peasant community in northeastern Peru where land scarcity has forced households to draw increasingly on NTFPs to supplement their incomes, including palm fibre for the production of handicrafts. Using household survey data (n = 36), we identify the specific factors that influence handicraft production, household use and economic reliance on palm fibre-based handicrafts, and the planting (semi-domestification) of the chambira palm. Our findings question the promise of rain forest ‘conservation-through-use’ and indicate the scope of challenges for species conservation, particularly among the rural poor.

Non-timber Forest Products in Nam Dong District, Central Vietnam: Ecological and Economic Prospects

This article analyses the ecological and economic prospects of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) and examines the importance of NTFPs for the livelihoods of local forest dwellers. It gives a brief review of NTFPs and the expectations and limitations associated with their use and extraction from natural forests. It argues that when looking at wild NTFPs only, they offer only limited opportunities for the development of local rural livelihoods. The empirical part of the article draws on a case study of NTFP extraction in Nam Dong district, central Vietnam. It provides insights into local NTFP use patterns and the importance of NTFPs for local households. Finally, it assesses the ecological and economic prospects of NTFPs in Nam Dong district. The article concludes that the supply of primary NTFPs in the natural forest is usually insufficient to meet market demands and ecological and economic requirements. If the primary aim is to develop rural households, it is necessary to enrich NTFPs in the natural forest or to cultivate them in manmade systems.

Poverty and Resource Degradation Under Different Common Forest Resource Management Systems in the Mountains of Nepal

Different types of forest management systems in the study area are analyzed, followed by an assessment of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) use systems and collection practices under the government and community-managed systems, and their implications for the status of forests and NTFPs. Confronted with severe poverty arising from small landholdings and scarce nonfarming employment opportunities, villagers in the upper portion of the watershed have benefited considerably from the income derived from NTFPs. Findings indicate that various components of a common forest resource can be managed differently and undergo degradation at different rates. NTFPs are undergoing degradation more seriously than timber under both government and community forest management systems. However, NTFP degradation is more serious in government forests than in community forests. Such degradation is due primarily to a lack of proper institutional arrangements, including the lack of a comprehensive government policy framework for sustainable use and management of NTFPs.

The Social Life of Nature

disciplines explores historically the politics of nature in particular local contexts through environmental projects, movements, and associated discourses. Environmental discourses vary with the particular context, including the details of time, place, phenomenon, agents, and consequences. For instance, state government officials may consider a tropical forest to be only a resource for logging to gain revenue, but indigenous people may consider the same forest to be their physical, historic, cultural, and spiritual homeland, a landscape in which they depend on the sustainable use of non-timber forest products (NTFP). Thus, many things in the Asian tropics and elsewhere may be perceived, conceptualized, and valued in remarkably different ways-field, forest, tree, frontier, wilderness, native species, exotic species, resource, sustainability, management, conservation, rights, property, profit, environment, nature, culture, ethnicity, indigenous, native, tribal, peasant, forester, scientist, environmentalist, tropics, south, north, region, community, local, national, international, transnational, global, and so on. Furthermore, meanings may compete and conflict resulting in practical consequences-ecological, demographic, economic, social, cultural, political, religious, historical, and so on. In

A tragedy of non-timber forest resources in the mountain commons of Nepal

There is increasing degradation of non-timber forest products (NTFPs) in the mountains of Nepal. It has been proposed that different components of a common property resource (CPR) do not undergo degradation at the same rate, as they are not managed in the same way under different types of property rights regimes. To examine this, information was collected through a survey of 324 households, community resource assessment ranking and group discussion in a small mountain watershed of Nepal. The study analysed NTFP collection and management practices under government and community forest management systems, and impact of these practices on the status of forest and NTFPs. The analysis based on people's perception revealed that NTFPs were being depleted more rapidly than timber components in both types of forest. The pace of depletion was, however, considerably lower in community forests, as these forests were accessible only to the relevant forest user group members. Depletion of NTFPs was due primarily to the lack of proper institutional arrangements, including the lack of a comprehensive government policy framework, for sustainable use and management of NTFPs.

Nontimber forest products in the United States

A quiet revolution is taking place in America's forests. Once seen primarily as stands of timber, our woodlands are now prized as a rich source of a wide range of commodities, from wild mushrooms and maple sugar to hundreds of medicinal whose uses have only begun to be fully realized. Now as timber harvesting becomes more mechanized and requires less labor, the image of the lumber-jack is being replaced by that of the forager. This book provides the first comprehensive examination of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) in the United States, illustrating their diverse importance, describing the people who them, and outlining the steps that are being taken to ensure access to them. As the first extensive national overview of NTFP policy and management specific to the United States, it brings together research from numerous disciplines and analytical perspectives - such as economics, mycology, history, ecology, law, entomology, forestry, geography, and anthropology - in order to provide a cohesive picture of the current and potential role of NTFPs. The contributors review the state of scientific knowledge of NTFPs by offering a survey of commercial and noncommercial products, an overview of uses and users, and discussions of sustainable management issues associated with ecology, cultural traditions, forest policy, and commerce. They examine some of the major social, economic, and biological benefits of NTFPs, while also addressing the potential negative consequences of NTFP harvesting on forest ecosystems and on NTFP species populations. Within this wealth of information are rich accounts of NTFP use drawn from all parts of the American landscape - from the Pacific Northwest to the Caribbean. From honey production to a review of nontimber forest economies still active in the United States - such as the Ojibway harvest of plants recounted here - the book takes in the whole breadth of recent NTFP issues, including ecological concerns associated with the expansion of NTFP markets and NTFP tenure issues on federally managed lands. No other volume offers such a comprehensive overview of NTFPs in North America. By examining all aspects of these products, it contributes to the development of more sophisticated policy and management frameworks for not only ensuring their ongoing use but also protecting the future of our forests.

Can non-timber forest products match tropical forest conservation and development objectives?

The contributions that non-timber forest products (NTFPs) can make to rural livelihoods, and the fact that their use is less ecologically destructive than timber harvesting, have encouraged the belief that more intensive management of forests for such products could contribute to both development and conservation objectives, and have led to initiatives to expand commercial use of NTFPs. This paper reviews evidence that indicates that this ‘conservation through commercialisation’ thesis needs to be revised. In practice, the selective nature of market demand, and the uneven distribution of resources of use value within forests, mean that with NTFP harvesting the resource can become altered and degraded. The pressures that market forces can place on local control mechanisms, and the conflicting interests of those using forest resources for subsistence and income generation, can also result in poorer users becoming disadvantaged as NTFP commercialisation is intensified. An approach that recognises such areas of conflict, and attempts to arrive at a realistic balance between development and conservation, is proposed.

Brief Overview of Historical Non-Timber Forest Product Use in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and Upper Midwest

Summary Non-timber forest products (NTFPs) have sustained indigenous and immigrant populations alike since their arrival in North America. This brief overview focuses on the historical use of NTFPs in the U.S. Pacific Northwest and Upper Midwest. Drawing on sources as diverse as accounts by early European arrivals, archaeological evidence, and contemporary ethnobotanical studies, we touch on documented uses of forest vegetation from prehistory to the present century. The residents of these regions have used NTFPs for food, medicine, and cultural materials. NTFPs have met their livelihood needs through subsistence uses and both non-market and market exchanges. We conclude that in spite of U.S incorporation into a global market-based economy, there is notable continuity in the harvest and use of NTFPs in the United States from prehistory to current times.

Aboriginal Use of Non-Timber Forest Products in Northw estern North America

Summary Aboriginal peoples in northwestern North America hav e traditionally used hundreds of different forest plants for food, materials and medicines. Plant products have also been economically important as trading goods. Today there are excellent prospects for aboriginal people to participate in the harvesting and marketing of non-timber forest products, but there are serious issues of access to and control of resources, respect of intellectual property rights, and concerns for conservation of plants and ecosystems that must be addressed. We provide an overview of past, current and potential use of NTFPs by aboriginal peoples in British Columbia and neighboring areas, and discuss the relevant issues and concerns, with recommendations about how these can be accommodated.

Tourism revenue-sharing around national parks in Western Uganda: early efforts to identify and reward local communities

Throughout much of the tropics, human-wildlife conflict impedes local support for national parks. By channelling tourism revenue to local residents, conservationists hope to offset wildlife costs and improve local attitudes toward conservation. To date tourism revenue-sharing (TRS) programmes have met mixed success. Local conditions and national policies that shape the success of TRS programmes were identified by comparing the experiences of both implementers and beneficiaries of pilot TRS programmes at three parks in western Uganda. Between 1995 and 1998, communities around these parks used a total of US $83 000 of tourism revenue to build 21 schools, four clinics, one bridge, and one road. In 1996, the Ugandan parliament passed legislation that changed both the amount of money available for TRS and the institutions responsible for sharing the money. The programme was suspended at all three parks while the implementing agency (Uganda Wildlife Authority) struggled to design a programme that complied with the new legislation. TRS funds collected before 1996 were shared through 1998, but since then no revenue has been shared. However, a revised TRS programme is expected to resume in 2001. In semi-structured interviews, both implementers and beneficiaries evaluated local TRS programmes and compared them to other benefit-sharing projects, particularly those promoting sustainable use of non-timber products within park boundaries (n = 44). Both groups of respondents listed revenue-sharing as the most important advantage of living next to a national park. Seventy-two per cent of respondents indicated that they thought TRS had improved attitudes towards the protected areas, and 53% thought TRS was more important then sustainable use of non-timber forest products. Although respondents were generally positive about TRS, in informal discussions respondents repeatedly mentioned four potential obstacles to TRS success, namely poorly defined TRS policies and unsteady implementing institutions, corruption, inadequate funds, and numerous stakeholders with differing priorities. From this survey and literature from experiences in other African countries, there are four key components of successful revenue-sharing programmes: long-term institutional support, appropriate identification of the target community and project type, transparency and accountability, and adequate funding. With firm institutional support and realistic expectations, TRS can play an important role in improving local attitudes towards conservation.

Nontimber Forest Product Use in Two Human Populations from Northwest Patagonia: A Quantitative Approach

The ancestral tradition of gathering nontimber products in the Andean forests of Patagonia seems to be on the verge of disappearing. Edible wild plant knowledge and differential patterns of use have been compared in two populations of different economic and cultural backgrounds—a small rural Mapuche community (Rams), and an outlying population (El Frutillar). The first is located in an herbaceous steppe far from the nearest Andean forest while the second is located outside the town of Bariloche, near the forests of Nahuel Huapi National Park. Semistructured interviews and related ecological variables were compared in both communities. In the past, both communities utilized nontimber forest products from the Andean Temperate forests. However, today, cost and benefit trade-offs appear to affect when and what edible resources are collected. The people from El Frutillar gather fewer wild plants in spite of the high plant abundance and the notorious food scarcity they suffer. The Mapuche people use more nutritious resources, more native species, spend longer traveling to the gathering site, and longer handling time preparing edible plants.

Timur(Zanthoxylum armatum)Production in Nepal

The use of nontimber forest products (NTFPs) in tropical forest management is currently receiving greater attention. Use of NTFPs starts with extraction from natural forests but may gradually be intensified to cultivation of domesticated trees. In order to enhance understanding of the evolutionary processes in NTFP production, this article analyzes the different management systems of timur (Zanthoxylum armatum) production in Nepalese forests. Products of this medicinal plant are regularly traded with India. Four different management regimes on open-access state lands, two different types of community-controlled lands, and private lands are described, each being characterized by a specific set of access regimes, organizational rules for collecting and managing timur, and management practices. A gradual increase in management intensity takes place from public lands to private lands as a result of various socio economic and politico-legislative factors. In contrast to earlier Nepalese studies, increased market price rather than increased scarcity was found to be the most important factor inducing intensification. It is concluded that the effects of supply and demand factors on management intensity of NTFPs cannot be generalized; these effects depend on both the management and marketing characteristics of specific NTFPs.

Utility of non‐timber forest products in a small watershed in the Indian Himalayas: the threat of its degradation

AbstractThis study discusses the use of non‐timber forest products (NTFP), especially medicinal plants, by traditional communities in the western Himalaya, India. The great socio‐cultural diversity and ecological complexity of the region is also matched by an unusually large variety of forest species being used. A wide range of plants, comprising herbs, shrubs and trees are used for different domestic purposes, such as food, fodder, materials for construction and handicrafts. Wild plants also play a vital role in providing primary health care in the region. In earlier times, forest products were harvested only on a subsistence basis. However, in recent decades, factors such as rising market demand, increasing population pressure, and changes in socio‐cultural and socio‐economic values have led to overharvesting. It is now estimated that most of the useful wild herbs in the region are overexploited and some of them have become locally extinct. Government forestry policies have, in the past, exclusively emphasized plantation and management of trees and have, unfortunately, ignored non‐timber products, as these are usually of comparatively lesser economic importance. However, it is suggested that proper management of NTFP will help upgrade rural economies. Recommended policies to this effect include empowerment of local communities and their involvement in development plans as well as strengthening of indigenous knowledge. To foster sustainable use of NTFP, the following steps are also suggested: integrating traditional and scientific knowledge; safeguarding regeneration potential; cultivating wild species, making appropriate changes to extraction processes used; and establishing more transparency in prices and marketing channels.