Use Of Metakaolin Research Articles

Strength Studies on Concrete with Recycled Aggregates and Cement with Metakaolin

Concrete is one of the most widely used construction material in the world. Recent technology has greatly improved the recycling process for waste concrete. Due to the critical shortage of natural aggregate, the availability of demolished concrete for use a recycled concrete aggregate is increasing. The study presents on the natural aggregates and recycled aggregates and also the effect of mineral admixture (metakaolin) on the strength studies. The use of metakaolin in concrete to achieve high strength and durable of concrete. The experimental work on the recycled aggregate and natural aggregates are replaced of 0%,50,100%, replacement of natural aggregate of recycled aggregates were casting in respectively the concrete mixed designed using M30 grade. In the cement partial replacement of metakaolin in 15% used for all mixtures. In the cement partial replacement of metakaolin in 5%,10%, 15%,20% used for all mixtures. The compressive strength of concrete has been determined after 7&28 days are curing compared with the results of concrete. The result shows the 15% of metakaolin and 50% recycled aggregates is high strength in concrete. The compressive strength and split tensile strength of the concrete.

Bond Strength and Fracture Toughness of Alkali Activated Self-Compacting Concrete Incorporating Metakaolin or Nanosilica

This study aims to evaluate the effect of nanosilica (NS) and metakaolin (MK) as binder replacement materials on the fresh and hardened characteristics of slag (GGBS)-based alkali-activated self-compacting concretes (A-ASCC). Therefore, nine A-ASCC mixes, with and without metakaolin, were prepared, as well as mixes with and without NS incorporation. In the production of A-ASCC mixes, GGBS was used as a binder material. The fresh properties of A-ASCC were determined using the L-box, V-funnel, T50 value, and slump flow tests, while the hardened properties were examined using compressive strength, bonding strength (pullout test), fracture toughness, and flexural tensile strength tests. A relationship analysis was also conducted on the A-ASCC experimental data. The experimental results showed that NS and MK had a negative effect on the fresh properties of GGBS-based A-ASCC mixtures, whereas metakaolin had a greater influence. The addition of 1% and 2% NS, on the other hand, improved the mechanical performance of the A-ASCC specimens significantly. The use of more than 2% NS had a harmful effect on the mechanical properties of A-ASCC. A 5% replacement ratio of metakaolin improved the mechanical properties of A-ASCC. The use of metakaolin at ratios of more than 5% had a negative effect on the properties of A-ASCC.

Use of metakaolin with polymer modified concrete in repairing of structures

Polymer-modified concrete (PMC)/mortar (PMM) is used for repairing and restoration of structures. In PMC/PMM, a water based polymeric dispersion is used to replace cement binder in the concrete mix/Mortar. The biggest limitation of polymer is its shelf life and high cost. Application of MK can substantially reduce the cost and improve mechanical properties of PMC/PMM.In this paper MK was used as a partial replacement by weight of cement in PMC/PMM. The project was carried out in two stages; in the first stage, various mixes were cast for different proportion of MK as a replacement for binder (OPC and PPC). Compressive strength and water sorptivity were tested for all five compositions and it was found that mix with 10% MK (MK10) showed maximum improvement in strength and sorptivity. In the second stage, the proportion of polymer latex was varied in MK10 and it was found that the use of 10% MK and 0.5% polymer latex (by weight of cement) in the mix showed better strength and durability properties. The PMM mix was applied to deteriorated concrete structure to validate the laboratory data. The results thus obtained were found to be in line with the laboratory results.

Hydration Behaviour and Characteristics of Binary Blended Metakaolin Cement Pastes

Cement production consume large amount of energy to form clinker and carbon dioxide (CO2) emitted into the atmosphere causing global warming. To mitigate this challenge, the use of Metakaolin (MK) as supplementary cementitious material cannot be over emphasized. This study evaluated the use of Metakaolin (MK) on hydration development of MK--PC blended cements and strength of Mortars. The MK with a Blaine fineness of 7883 cm2/g was used to replace Portland Cement (PC) at a level of 0, 5, 10, 15, 20, 25 and 30 % by mass of PC at a constant w/b ratio of 0.50 to prepare blended cements. Hydration development of blended cement and compressive strength of Mortars were investigated using chemically bond water and free-lime contents and strength tests respectively. X – Ray diffraction (XRD) and scanning electron Microscopy (SEM) techniques were also utilised in the analysis of Pozzolanic reaction and hydration products. Test results indicates that Water of consistency, setting times for the mixes increased with increase in MK contents, influence of MK on the chemically bond water and free Lime contents of the blended cements were due to its filler and dilution effects and Pozzolanic reaction. The cumulative non-evaporable water and free-lime contents increased by partial replacement of PC with MK due to PC hydration and Pozzolanic reaction. The tested Mortar prepared with blended cements with 30 % PC replacement with MK shows a retardation of strength development with a low value at early ages (7 days) and increased in growth at later ages (28 days). The compressive strength of tested mortar for 90 days curing age for the blended mortar is 31 N/mm2 close to that of control Mortar (35 N/mm2). The results obtained from XRD and SEM analysis indicated increase in Calcium Hydroxide (CH) consumption and Calcium Silicate hydrate (C-S-H) formation in blended cement pastes with curing time. The PC replacement with MK induced changes in Microstructures of blended cement paste and chemical composition of hydration products. These results are potentials for modelling the behaviour of MK-PC blended cements.

Potential use of matakaolin as a partial replacement of preformulated lime binder to improve durability of hemp concrete under cyclic wetting/drying aging

This study reports the experimental investigation of a commercial formulated lime binder (Tadical PF70) modification effect on the durability of hemp concrete specimens when subjected to continuous wetting and drying cycles. The influence of partial replacement of Tradical PF70 binder by metakaolin has been studied by testing the physico-mechanical properties of samples including mass loss, porosity, compressive and flexural strengths, and corresponding toughness for aging conditions of 15, 25, and 50 wetting/drying cycles. Considered as a critical factor which contributes to the specimen deterioration, a separate investigation of the degradation rate of the embedded hemp particles in specimens at aging cycle intervals has been also performed. The results have shown that the pozzolanic reaction of amorphous silica contained in metakaolin with dissolved calcium hydroxide appears to significantly minimise the degradation of hemp concrete. The corresponding reaction consumes calcium hydroxide to produce hydrated calcium silicates and in turn will lead to the lowest alkalinity of pore solution which is considered as the main responsible for hydrolysis of hemp particles. The examination of the relationship between embedded hemp particle deterioration degree and the loss of mechanical properties of hemp concrete has shown that the use of metakaolin is an effective means to improve durability of specimens mainly through the restraint of hemp particle degradation.

The effect of the addition of metakaolin on the fresh and hardened properties of blended cement products: A review

Globally, cement is only second to water as the most consumed material with over 6 billion tons being produced every year. However, it is the most energy-intensive and expensive component of concrete. This study reviews the research carried out on the use of metakaolin as a Supplementary Cementitious Material (SCM) in paste, mortar, or concrete. The characteristics of metakaolin and its influence on the fresh and hardened properties of blended cement mixtures are demonstrated based on the recent literature. The review reported three main aspects of metakaolin-cement blends which are: physical (workability and setting times), mechanical (compressive strength and shrinkage), and long-term durability properties (chloride ion diffusion, sulfate attack resistance, and Alkali-Silica/-Carbonate Reaction (ASR/ACR). According to the literature, metakaolin is demonstrated as an effective pozzolan that improves the pore structure significantly. It can greatly enhance early age strength in blended cement products with no degradation, and potentially some improvement too, in long-term strength, all while improving permeability and resistance against ASR/ACR and the intrusion of harmful solutions.

Performance on Jute Fiber Reinforced Concrete with Admixtures and the Replacement of Fine Aggregate by Moorum Soil

As is generally known, the globe is rapidly developing, and building construction plays a crucial role in this development. If we go into further detail, the increased use of concrete results in a depletion of natural resources. We considered substituting the following measurements for part of the concrete's proportions in order to conserve our natural resources. To preserve natural resources like fine aggregate, we are employing metakaolin as an additive in partial substitution of cement at the following percentages: 0%, 5%, 7.5%, 10% and 12.5%. In fine aggregate, we are substituting moorum soil to varying degrees (0, 5, 10, 15 and 20%). To improve the concrete's mechanical and lasting qualities, we use several types of fibres. Concrete is good at compression and weak attention. We are incorporating jute fibres into the volume of concrete with a 25 mm length in various percentages, such as 0%, 0.5%, 1%, 1.5% and 2%, to enhance the tensile qualities of the concrete because we are aware that it is strong in compression but weak in tension. The largest 28-day strength improvement of concrete can be anticipated at partial replacements in the 10-15% range, according to the test results obtained with compressive strength and split tensile strength tests in this instance. The strength parameters are increasing as a result of the combined use of metakaolin.

Effects of the use of agricultural ashes, metakaolin and hydrated-lime on the behavior of self-compacting concretes

Self-compacting concrete (SCC) is an innovative product, which has fluidity and cohesion to cover the entire length of the piece and fill the spaces between reinforcement. However, currently, its use in construction sites is linked to a high consumption of cement. This generates a series of environmental problems such as depletion of natural resources and increased CO2 emissions. To mitigate these environmental problems, it is necessary to seek supplementary, locally available materials, to provide a sustainable and efficient way forward for the construction industry. In this perspective, this research investigates the effects of the use of metakaolin (MK), sugar cane bagasse ash (SCBA), rice husk ash (RHA) and hydrated-lime (HL) on rheological (slump flow, J-ring and V-funnel), mechanical (compressive strength) and durability (electrical resistivity, accelerated carbonation and mercury intrusion porosimetry) behavior in SCC. Portland Cement was replaced from 0% to 60% by mineral admixtures in mixtures with and without 10% HL. The results indicated that the SCC produced with agricultural ashes presented physical behaviors compatible with the standards and obtained compressive strength equivalent to the reference SCC (REF). Moreover, these concretes presented carbonation depth lower than the normative values and electrical resistivity significantly higher than the SCC-REF, reducing the probability of corrosion of the steel bars and, therefore, validating the use of ash obtained from industrial bio-waste in the production of SCC. The HL also presented itself as a good re-alkalizer of the cement matrix.

FIBER-REINFORCED CONCRETE FOR RIGID ROAD PAVEMENTS MODIFIED WITH POLYCARBOXYLATE ADMIXTURE AND METAKAOLIN

Increasing the strength and durability of road surfaces is crucial. Therefore, the concrete compressive strength, flexural strength, frost, and abrasion resistance of fiber-reinforced concrete for rigid pavements are investigated in this study an experiment is performed based on an optimal plan, in which four factors of concrete composition are varied: the amounts of Portland cement, polypropylene fiber, metakaolin, and polycarboxylate type admixture. Experimental statistical models for investigating the effects of composition factors on concrete properties are established. It is discovered that owing to the use of metakaolin and a superplasticizer, the concrete compressive strength increases. Furthermore, the use of modifiers and fiber reinforcement increases the flexural strength, frost resistance, and wear resistance of concrete. X-ray phase analysis of the fiber-reinforced concrete structure confirm the effectiveness of the modifier effect, in particular the positive role of metakaolin as an active pozzolana. The developed fiber-reinforced concrete for rigid pavements with rational modifiers, depending on the Portland cement content, exhibits compressive strengths from 55 to 70 MPa, flexural strengths from 8 to 9.5 MPa, frost resistances from F350 to F450, and abrasion resistances from 0.3 to 0.4 g/cm2. Such properties ensure the high durability of fiber-reinforced concrete and allow it to be used on road pavements that support heavy loads and traffic.

Experimental Investigation into the Metakaolin Used in Concrete

Today, in most parts of the world, there has been a tremendous development in the technology of concrete to achieve high-strength concrete. The use of metakaolin (MK) in concrete to achieve high-strength and durable concrete has been in the concrete industry for several years. Due to its significant pozzolanic activity and reaction with calcium hydroxide in the cement, this material has reduced porosity and permeability and increased durability and strength in concrete. In the present study, the role of (MK) and its effect on the mechanical properties to achieve the optimum percentage of MK use for high strength and durability have been investigated. In this study, laboratory tests at early and hardened state including temperature change, slump, liquidity examination, water absorption, specific gravity of concrete, electrical strength test (indicating permeability and corrosion rate), and compressive strength test on samples with 0, 10, 15 and 20 percent cement-substituted MK at 7 and 28 days of age were tested on 15cm cube specimens. The results showed that the addition of 10% cement substitute MK in slump test, 15% cement substitute MK in compressive strength test, and 20% cement substituent MK in electrical resistance test had the highest values and 15% cement substitute MK in concrete weight density test. 20% of cement-substituted MK in the experiment showed the lowest water absorption percentage compared to other mixes designs. Microscopic analysis shows the more durable MK replacement in comparison with normal concrete.

Mechanical strength and microstructure of metakaolin/volcanic ash-based geopolymer composites reinforced with reactive silica from rice husk ash (RHA)

The physical, mechanical and microstructural properties of metakaolin/volcanic ash-based geopolymer composites were investigated, as well as the influence of the incorporation of a reactive silica from rice husk ash (RHA) in their performance. The geopolymer composites were designed by replacing metakaolin with volcanic ash, VA (10–30 wt%) and RHA (0–20 wt%). Physical and mechanical testing, FTIR, XRD, optical microscopic and SEM were used to characterize the geopolymer composites. The results showed that the mechanical strengths and physical properties were mostly affected by the VA content as well as RHA content where the optimal mechanical strengths (19.3 and 60.73 MPa for flexural and compressive strength, respectively) were obtained with the composite sample containing 20 wt% of VA and 10 wt% of RHA. This was due to the additive that enhances the compactness and microstructure of geopolymer matrices obtained and also the increase of SiO2/Al2O3 ratio with the addition of RHA. Synergistic use of metakaolin, volcanic ash, and rice husk ash for construction materials through alkaline activation looks like the upcoming trend to valorize these materials.

Determining the optimum percentages of fly ash, metakaolin and copper slag by replacing cement and fine aggregate in m30 grade concrete

The overall production of the cement has greatly increased which results lots of problems in environment as it involves the emission of CO2 gas. Environmental concerns, stemming from the high energy expense and carbon dioxide emission associated with cement manufacture have brought about pressures to reduce cement consumption through the use of supplementary materials. Materials such as Metakaolin, fly ash have good pozzolanic activity and are a good material for the production of high strength concrete. Copper slag is a by-product of copper extraction by smelting. Copper slag can be used in concrete production as a partial replacement for sand. However, it is expected that the use of Metakaolin, Fly ash and Copper slag in concrete improves the strength properties of concrete.
 Keywords: Supplementary cementitious material, Cement, Fine aggregate

Effect of carbonation in high chloride-binding capacity mortars subjected to a marine environment at early ages

This paper presents an experimental research on the effect of carbonation on the chloride penetration in mortars exhibiting a refined porous network and high chloride-binding capacity. The research was focused on the use of metakaolin combined with nanosilica, evaluating the influence of the surface area of the nanoadditions. It was observed that the addition of nanosilica reduces the binding capacity of metakaolin, this reduction was influenced by the type of nanosilica. The analysis of the carbonated samples following carbonation periods of three and six months allowed observing that the free chloride content as well as the bound chloride content are diminished with carbonation. Thence, it can be concluded that the carbonation process hinders the chloride penetration, which can lead to a reduction with time in the chloride concentration of samples.

Development of supplementary cementitious materials from Algerian kaolin: elaboration of metakaolin and assessment of pozzolanicity

Researches on the use of metakaolin, as a supplementary cementitious material (SCM), are growing worldwide due to its environmental and technical benefits. Metakaolin is usually obtained by calcining kaolinitic clay; however, the thermal cycle of calcination should ensure the optimal kaolin to Metakaolin conversion. This experimental investigation aims to examine the effect of calcination parameters on two Algerian kaolins (KT1 and KT2), used to elaborate Metakaolins. The raw ground materials have undergone various thermal cycles, by varying the target temperature (from 500 to 1000 °C) and the holding time (2, 3 and 5 h). The optimal thermal cycle was checked by assessing the pozzolanic reactivity using mechanical, physical and chemical methods. Results of the various tests were in perfect agreement, and they show that the calcination enhanced pozzolanic reactivity and that the thermal cycle of 800 °C–5 h allowed obtaining the highest pozzolanicity. The treatment of KT1 led to a compressive strength slightly better than that of the control mortar and a lime consumption of 767 mg/g. However, results of the treated KT2 were more important, it recorded an improvement of about 6% in compressive strength and a lime consumption of 843 mg/g. It has been concluded, therefore, that both materials have significant pozzolanic potential and deserve to be valued as SCMs and used in environmentally friendly cement.

Sustainable utilization of industrial wastes for the cleaner production of ferrocement structures: A comprehensive review

Creative development of ferrocement technology in the construction industry has enhanced dynamically due to its faster construction, lighter weight, higher strength, durability and economical advantages than the reinforced concrete structures. The use of smaller diameter closely spaced mesh layers which is uniformly distributed throughout the cross section improved the moment of resistance, deflection and ductility of the ferrocement members. To achieve the environmental friendliness and sustainability in the durable ferrocement technology, this paper aims to provide a comprehensive implication reviewed from the previous research works carried out to explore the application of industrial waste materials in the ferrocement construction. Influence of various industrial waste materials on the behaviour of both mortar and meshing reinforcement were discussed separately. The optimum level replacement, effect on the structural behaviour and the suitability in the various environmental conditions were inferred. For instance, Ground Granulated Blast furnace Slag (GGBS) could be utilized as a binder at the maximum of 50% by weight, where as the use of metakaolin in ferrocement construction is optimum at 15% by weight as further addition caused the undesirable effect on the mechanical properties due to the delay in hydration process and inefficient filler effect. Grain size modified nano industrial wastes like nano silica and nano fly ash resulted in improved mechanical and micro structural behaviour of ferrocement products due to its nano filling effect. The use of nano fly ash was found to be successful as nano binder to the maximum of 10% which is not possible in case of other costlier nano materials like nano silica, alumina, titanium oxide, etc. The major issues of corrosion and chemical attack in ferrocement mesh were easily solved by the implementation of high molar geopolymer mortar which also resulted in cleaner and greener production of ferrocement products.

Effect of MK and SF on the concrete mechanical properties

This paper inspects the impact of MK and SF on the mechanical properties of concrete. In this study the replacement percentage of cement with Meta-kaolin was ranged from (7–8%) and the addition of silica fume by (15%). The results showed that the obtained compressive strengths, split tensile strengths and flexural strengths for the concrete have been determined that all results of the tests have been increased while increasing the meta kaolin ratio up to 7%. later there is a little decreasing in the strength for overflowing use of meta kaolin up to 7.5% and 8% which decreases the ratio of w/c and postponement the activity of a pozzolan. The maximum value of strength with the 7% ratio of meta kaolin addition is sufficient because the meta kaolin amount reacts with the calcium hydroxide which speeds up the hydration of cement and creates gel of C-SH. From the results the best percentage of Meta-kaolin can be replaced with cement is (7%) with addition of silica fume by (15%).

Evaluation of strength and durability assessment for the impact of Rice Husk ash and Metakaolin at High Performance Concrete mixes

Traditional concrete used within the manufacture of High-Performance Concrete (HPC) does not provide the essential consistency. To attain the expected workability, structural reliability, high strength, but durability under adverse environmental conditions, generally available concrete materials must be perfectly shaped to a significant level. available Metakaolin (MK) and Rice husk ash (RHA) acquired were used to replace cement by 0%, 5%mk + 10%rha, 7.5%mk + 10%rha, 10%mk + 10%rha, 5%mk + 12.5%rha, 7.5%mk + 12.5%rha, 10%mk + 12.5%rha, 5%mk + 15%rha, 7.5%mk + 15%rha and 10%mk + 15%rha of its weight in different proportioning. Integration of MK and RHA into concrete increases water requirements, when compared with the control ordinary Portland cement (OPC) blend, integration of MK and RHA greatly improves durability properties; thus, by use of MK and RHA will decrease cement consumption while improving the durability characteristics of concrete such as percentage of water absorption, sorpitivity test, effective porosity, permeability, resistance to acid and rapid chloride penetration tests. Hence, this research paper concludes with strength characteristics and durability parameters for MK and RHA based High Performance Concrete (HPC) mixes.

Study on influence of Metakaolin and waste marble powder on self-compacting concrete – A state of the art review

The development of Self-compacting concrete (SCC) was initiated in Japan in late 1980. SCC is understood for its self-consolidation and flows through narrow spaces in the formwork and does not require external vibration which has enhanced its acknowledgment over normal concrete, thus increasing the interest of researchers to focus on this building and construction material. A lot of research on SCC has been done in Japan, Turkey, Iran, United Kingdom, Algeria, Thailand, Malaysia, and India. Common industrial materials such as Limestone Powder (LP), Metakaolin (MK), Fly Ash (FA), Silica Fume (SF) and Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GBFS) have been used to increase the efficiency of SCC. There are also numerous options on recycle materials which can be utilized for the development of SCC. This paper focusses on the use of pozzolanic material like Metakaolin (MK) as a mineral admixture and non-pozzolanic material like Waste Marble Powder (WMP) as a filler material. Both types of materials have a positive effect on the fresh, hardened and durability state of SCC. The use of MK plays an important role in decreasing the environmental pollution by way of lesser carbon dioxide emissions. The use of WMP reduces the segregation, bleeding and cost of production of SCC. Therefore, this paper containing the valuable and significant information can provide a platform for the new researchers for future investigations on SCC.

Compressive Strength and Ultrasonic Pulse Velocity of Concrete with Metakaolin

The intention of the present study is to assess the possibility of using Metakaolin as a partial replacement of Portland Pozzolana Cement (PPC) in the concrete to improve its workability and compressive strength. It also explores the study on the connection between ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV) on different replacement percentage of mineral metakaolin and compressive strength by using a compression testing machine for M40 grade of concrete. Concrete specimens were cast of size 150 mmx150 mm x150mm by partial replacing PPC with metakaolin in the range of 4% to 28 % by the weight of cement. For better consistency and workability the Visco-Flux superplasticizer was used. Usual procedure of water curing of specimens was done for 7, 28, and 90 days to determine the effect of curing time on strength. All 8 different mix specimens were tested for compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity. It was observed that up to 24% metakaolin replacement the strength was increased but after that, the strength gets reduced as compared to the normal concrete and the optimum value of compressive strength was obtained at 16% metakaolin replacement. The increase in the UPV of test samples indicated the formation of the homogeneous structure due to the addition of metakaolin. So the use of metakaolin as a partial replacement of PPC in concrete is a good choice to reduce the cost of production and increase the strength of concrete. A mathematical model is generated by regression analysis in the form of an equation to correlate the compressive strength and ultrasonic pulse velocity.

THE EFFECT OF MODIFIED ADDITIVES ON STRENGTH AND FROST RESISTANCE IN FIBROUS CONCRETE OF RIGID ROAD PAVEMENTS

Abstract. The research is devoted to the development of compositions of modified fiber concrete of rigid road pavements with high strength and frost resistance through the use of metakaolin and a polycarboxylate type superplasticizer. The compressive strength, tensile strength under bending and frost resistance of concrete and fiber concrete of rigid road pavements were investigated according to the 4-factor optimal plan. In the experiment the amount of concrete components varied: Portland cement, polypropylene fibers, metakaolin, the polycarboxylate type additives Coral ExpertSuid-5. All mixtures had equal mobility P2 and their W/C depended on the composition of concrete. The use of polypropylene fiber and metakaolin necessitates an increase of W/C to maintain the mobility of the mixture. Increasing the amount of Coral ExpertSuid-5 additive in concrete to 0.9-1% allows to reduce significantly W/C of the mixture. Metakaolin as an active mineral additive increases the compressive strength and tensile strength of concrete. Rational in terms of increasing strength is the amount of metakaolin at the level of 20..22 kg/m3. With an increase in the amount of Coral ExpertSuid-5 additive to 0.9..1% due to a decrease of W/C, the compressive strength of concrete increases by 5..7 MPa, and the tensile strength increases by about 0.5 MPa. Due to the introduction of polypropylene fiber, the tensile strength of concrete in bending increases by 0.6..0.9 MPa. But dispersed reinforcement does not affect the compressive strength of concrete. The developed fiber concrete using a rational amount of modifiers, depending on the amount of Portland cement in the composition, has a compressive strength from 55 MPa to 70 MPa and tensile strength from 8 MPa to 9.5 MPa. The high strength of fiber-reinforced concretes allows their use in road pavements with the highest load. Frost resistance of concrete increases by 50 cycles or more when using fiber in an amount of 1.5-2 kg/m3. Due to the use of a rational amount of modifiers (0.8-1% Coral ExpertSuid-5 additive and 15-20 kg/m3 metakaolin), frost resistance of concrete and fiber concrete increases by 50-100 cycles. The developed modified fiber concretes of rigid road pavements depending on the amount of Portland cement in the composition have frost resistance from F350 to F450, which ensures their sufficient durability.