Lick Use Research Articles

Characteristics of Mineral Licks Used by White-Tailed Deer (Odocoileus virginianus)

-Characteristics of mineral licks used by white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were examined in the northern Black Hills of South Dakota in May 1992. Concentrations of sodium, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, chloride and magnesium, and soil texture, organic matter and pH for licks and nonlick soils were compared. Black Hills lick and nonlick samples also were compared to 67 other North American licks characterized byJones and Hanson (1985). Degree of use (high or low), and vegetative and topographic characteristics also were determined. Use of mineral licks by deer was highest in spring and early summer; mineral licks were not used by deer in winter. Mostly adult females, and on a few occasions fawns visited licks. Soil texture was finer and organic matter was lower (P < 0.05) in lick than nonlick soils. Soil pH, soluble salts, sodium and nitrate nitrogen were higher (P < 0.05) in lick than in nonlick soils. Chloride was the only mineral that differed (P = 0.03) between high-use and low-use licks but was not considered important in lick selection. Sodium was the primary mineral sought by white-tailed deer using mineral licks.

Mineral content and wildlife use of soil licks in southwestern Nepal

Twelve species of mammals were recorded at mineral licks during the dry season in lowland Nepal. When analyzed for extractable phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, calcium, sodium, and sulphur concentrations and pH, only sodium concentration and pH were significantly higher than in control soil samples taken in both sal forest (Shorea robusta), in which all the licks were found, and adjacent riverine forest and grassland habitats. The axis deer (Axis axis) and common langur (Presbytis entellus) were the most common species on the licks. Axis deer used the licks intensively in January, just after grass sprouting, while most common langurs were recorded in March, after flushing of browse species. Sodium appeared to be the main element sought at the licks, based on both concentration differences between licks and controls and the significant relationship between axis deer use and the sodium content of the lick.

Use of Artificial Mineral Licks by White-Tailed Deer in Louisiana

We examined white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) use of artificial mineral licks on 3 properties in southcentral Louisiana. High deer use of licks extended longer into summer and fall than reported for areas in more northern latitudes. Estimated monthly mineral consumption averaged 538.0 g/deer (SE = 70.8) and was associated with total moisture and crude protein reported for native plants on forest range in central Louisiana. Consumption from individual licks was positively associated with adjacent soil P concentration (P < 0.001).

Use of roadside salt licks by Moose, Alces alces, in northern New Hampshire

Use of roadside salt licks by Moose, Alces alces, in northern New Hampshire

Spatial distribution and nutritive value of two species of Cochlospermum for warthog (Phacochoerus aethiopicus Pallas) in Kainji Lake Park, Nigeria

Percentage composition of woody plants in five vegetation types and activity sites of warthog were used to evaluate the spatial distribution of Cochlospermum spp. in Kainji Lake National Park. Cochlospermum planchoni and Cochlospermum tinctorium were mostly encountered in Acacia forest. These species constituted between 7% and 18% of the plant species in the activity sites of warthog. The activity site with the highest composition of Cochlospermum spp. contained the lowest density (1–2 km-1) of warthog. Although C. planchoni contained more nutrients than C. tinctorium, each of these species may be useful for the total ash (93-0g kg-1) and crude fibre (423-0g kg-1) quantities that are being utilized as nutrients by warthog. Consequently, Cochlospermum spp. could be established in conservation areas either to eradicate the use of artificial salt licks or to reduce the percentage of bare ground prone to trampling and erosion.

Non-conventional indigenous mineral supplements used for cattle feeding in the pastoral rangelands of Ethiopia.

Salt licks, soil licks and well waters from various parts of Ethiopia used by pastoral nomads for cattle feeding were sampled and assessed for composition and quality. Most of the licks were alkaline and had low solubility both in water and acid. All the salt licks and some of the soil licks contained a considerable amount of sodium and these could constitute a reasonable and cheap source of the element. Except for iron which had a concentration in most of the supplements much in excess of requirements the rest of the essential elements assayed occurred in the licks in quantities too small to satisfy estimated requirements of cattle. This particularly applied to phosphorus and copper which are below critical ranges in the pastures of the region. The excessive amount of Fe could have an antagonistic effect on P and Cu. The well waters contained elements in safe limits but water from Medecho contained total soluble salts exceeding safe limits. Except as sources of Na the licks especially soil licks can be considered unsatisfactory sources of other essential minerals. The widespread use of soil licks in the region should be discouraged until thorough assessment has been done since these licks may have deleterious direct and indirect effects on performance of cattle.

Chemical elements in mineral licks and associated muskoxen feces in Jameson Land, northeast Greenland

Chemical analyses of soil from several mineral licks used by muskoxen (Ovibos moschatus) showed consistently higher content of sodium than did soil outside the lick sites. Other minerals were more variable in their distribution in the samples, although potassium, magnesium, and iron were often substantially more abundant in soil from the licks than in adjacent soil. Analysis of fecal samples that contained large amounts of soil believed to be from one lick showed higher proportions of sodium, iron, magnesium, and calcium than did fecal samples collected far from any known lick. We believe that sodium is the primary element sought by muskoxen using the mineral licks. This appears consistent with the high seasonal physiological requirements for sodium of ruminants, its relatively low availability in the forage, and the high potassium and water content of forage during the season of lick use, both of which are known to interfere with sodium retention.

Mineral Lick Use by Mountain Sheep in the San Gabriel Mountains, California

Soil from 13 mineral licks used by mountain sheep (Ovis canadensis nelsoni) in the San Gabriel Mountains, California, was sampled for sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and chloride (Cl). Mountain sheep use of licks was determined from the percentage of grit in fecal samples in 1980 and 1981. Mineral licks were significantly higher (P < 0.01) in Ca and Mg than the surrounding soil. Licks were used by mountain sheep from April to September and significantly correlated (P < 0.01) with the moisture regime of chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum). J. WILDL. MANAGE. 51(2):383-385 Mineral licks are an important source of dietary supplements for North American ungulate populations (Jones and Hanson 1985) including wild sheep inhabiting northern latitudes (Honess and Frost 1942, Packard 1946, Smith 1954, Geist 1971, Heimer 1973, Skipworth 1974). However, few studies (Kennedy 1957, Mahon 1969, Watts and Schemnitz 1985) have described the use of mineral licks by mountain sheep inhabiting southern latitudes. Turner (1973) suggested that mineral licks were not used by some desert dwelling mountain sheep populations because essential nutrients were obtained directly from their forage. However, Weaver et al. (1972) noted that mountain sheep inhabiting the San Gabriel Mountains in southern California used mineral licks. We discuss the characteristics of mineral licks and describe how they are used seasonally by mountain sheep in the San Gabriel Mountains. We thank W. M. Perry and K. Crombie who assisted with field work. D. D. Maxwell provided Calif. Dep. Fish and Game laboratory facilities. G. A. Fagella and M. J. Pletcher assisted with the analyses. R. T. Bowyer, J. D. Wehausen, and K. R. Whitten reviewed drafts of the manuscript. Funding for this project was provided by the San Bernardino Natl. For. and Calif. Fed. Aid Wildl. Restor. Proj. W-26-D.

Mineral licks as a sodium source for Isle Royale moose.

Natural mineral licks and their use by moose (Alces alces) on Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, were studied during 1982-85. The distribution of known licks suggested that they occurred in association with glacial debris, primarily in the western portions of the island. Moose utilized mineral springs extensively during the spring-summer period, and at least 5 licks were used year-round. During summer, a pronounced diel pattern of moose visitation was apparent, with peak use occurring between 0400-0800 h. Although daytime lick use declined by late June, morning and evening use continued to be relatively high throughout the study period. Peak lick use coincided with leaf-emergence in spring. Moose continued to utilize mineral licks despite the availability of ponds containing aquatic plants. Sodium appeared to be the element attracting moose to licks where they ingest copious amounts of water. Observed sodium ingestion rates (0.35 g/min) at licks indicate that licks provide a more concentrated source of sodium compared to aquatic plants (0.023 g/min). Based on the data presented, we reject the conclusions of earlier workers that aquatic plants constitute the only significant source of sodium for Isle Royale moose.

Mineral Lick Use and Movement in a Remnant Desert Bighorn Sheep Population

Following a precipitous decline from approximately 150 animals in the 1950's, bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis mexicana) in the Big Hatchet Mountains of southwestern New Mexico had failed to increase beyond 20-25 sheep. Monitoring of this herd from June 1976 to May 1978 revealed an unusual trans-desert movement pattern which resulted in the disappearance of young lambs (Lenarz 1979). Sheep apparently left the mountain range to use sodium-rich mineral licks (Watts 1979). Our paper examines the relationships between this movement pattern, possible recurring sodium deficiencies in the sheep, and associated lamb mortalities.

Lick use by large herbivores: a review of benefits and banes of soil consumption

ABSTRACTIt has been suggested that soil ingestion in herbivores provides an extra source of essential minerals. The present paper is a follow‐up to this theory, intended to show that other soil properties, like buffering capacity and adsorption capacity, could also form major attractive reasons for soil consumption. Notably, lactic acidosis and disorders caused by forage anti‐quality components (secondary compounds etc.) might be prevented or alleviated by selective soil intake. Harmful effects of soil intake are also briefly reviewed.

Mineral lick use by moose in Alaska

Chemical analyses and observations of lick use indicated that natural licks are an important source of sodium for moose (Alces alces) in Alaska during early summer (June). Most lick use occurred in late evening, unlike the diel activity patterns of moose not at licks. Bulls used licks earlier in the summer than cows and there was a disproportionately high rate of lick use by bulls. Calves used licks less than dams and started using licks later in the season. Sex and age differences in lick use would bias population counts from lick observations. Natural licks appeared to influence movements and distribution of moose during spring and summer.

Aquatic feeding by moose: seasonal variation in relation to plant chemical composition and use of mineral licks

Activity of moose (Alces alces) was studied at aquatic feeding areas and at natural, sodium-rich licks during four periods covering late May to early September. Aquatic feeding increased from period 1 (late May and early June) to period 2 (late June and early July) and had declined by late July. Major activity at mineral licks occurred earlier in the season than aquatic feeding, especially for males. Chemical composition of aquatic plants showed no seasonal changes corresponding to the peak of aquatic feeding in period 2, although the sodium content of some species declined in period 3. We suggest that moose in the study area are attracted to sodium sources from late May to mid-July, that aquatic feeding replaces use of licks in June as the most sodium-rich aquatic plants become abundant, and that both activities decrease in midsummer because of declining attraction to sodium.

Activity of moose and white-tailed deer at mineral springs

Activity of moose (Alces alces) and white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) was studied at two natural mineral springs (licks) in Ontario during the springtime and summer of 1977 to 1980. Most adult moose appeared to use a lick during a single 1- to 5-day period in a year; some returned at intervals during the season; and all seemed drawn principally by the mineral-rich water. Some young moose remained in the lick vicinity for 3 weeks or more, and often wandered in and out of the licks, grazing herbage as well as drinking. This suggested a social as well as a nutritional attraction for young moose. Activity of both moose and deer increased after leaf flush. Adult male moose used licks most heavily in late May and early June, adult females in middle and late June. Use by young animals was more variable, but all moose activity declined in late June when aquatic feeding became common. Deer continued to use licks heavily until mid-July. Evidently the Na hunger that motivates lick use is related to spring phenology and wanes during the summer. Social and other behaviour seen at licks is described.

Characteristics of Mineral Licks and Behavior of Visiting White-Tailed Deer in Southern Indiana

Characteristics of mineral licks and various facets of their use by whitetailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) were examined in southern Indiana. Sodium (Na) levels were elevated in all licks, and Na was judged to be the element sought by deer. Use of licks by deer was maximum in early spring and moderated during the summer and early autumn; no winter use occurred. All sexes and ages except spotted fawns visited licks. Much aggressive interaction occurred at licks with no evidence of formation of a dominance hierarchy; only adult males were clearly dominant. It is concluded that the primary role of licks is the provision of Na during periods of Na deficiency. Requisite characteristics for any attractant proposed as an alternative to Na are discussed.

SOME ASPECTS OF BIG‐GAME UTILIZATION OF MINERAL LICKS IN YANKARI GAME RESERVE, NIGERIA

SummaryAt least ten major mineral licks occur along the Gaji River which bisects the Yankari Game Reserve. The licks show varying degrees of utilization and have craters of up to 1200m3 in volume. Three hundred and eighty five hours of observation were kept at one of the licks. Its use by different species was highly variable. Some species occurring in the reserve made no visits to the lick, whereas Western hartebeest (51 groups), waterbuck (53 groups) and warthog (276 groups) made frequent visits. Lick use was much greater in the daytime than at night, with the peak occurring around 1400 h. A limited number of soil samples (29) were analysed but no single element can be considered as the factor attracting wildlife. However, the lick areas were richer in most minerals than were samples of soil from drier habitat in the open woodland. It is possible that significantly increased lick use might in the future indicate degrading environmental conditions in the drier parts of the reserve. If hides are constructed, the commonly utilized licks will provide excellent opportunities for behaviour observatioii and photography by tourists.

Natural salt licks as a part of the ecology of the mountain goat

Mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus) occupying the Rocky Mountain Trench area of southeastern British Columbia use natural earth licks in the spring (males) and early summer (females). Analysis of range vegetation reveals a low sodium content (mean about 0.004% dry weight). Despite low sodium intake from feed, blood sodium values were normal (m = 150.8 meq/liter). Loss of sodium via the fecal route increases abruptly in the spring. This period of increased loss corresponds with the lime of use of the natural licks. Mineral constituents of the licks were Ca (1050–85 000 ppm), P (0–25 ppm), and Na (115–5500 ppm). Each animal visited the lick but once during the summer and did so despite increased exposure to hazards of predation. Despite the low soil sodium content the inference is that the goats are eating the earth to compensate for Na deficiency.

Anthelmintics for sheep by continuous low-level free-choice administration using a solidified medicated molasses block.

Abstract Extract From time to time, interest is shown in the use of licks for providing anthelmintic medication to livestock. This paper presents results from two trials on the use, with sheep, of a solidified molasses block incorporating phenothiazine and thiabendazole.