Use Of Inferential Statistics Research Articles

The Effects of Parametric, Non-Parametric Tests and Processes in Inferential Statistics for Business Decision Making <br/>—A Case of 7 Selected Small Business Enterprises in Uganda

The article gives a critique of parametric and nonparametric tests and processes of inferential statistics in forecasting customer flows in 7 selected small business enterprises in Uganda. Forecasting is one of the decision making tools in a business enterprise. This may include forecasting customer flows, volumes of sales and many others. This is a vital component of small businesses success. In the long run, what drives business success is the quality of decisions and their implementation. Decisions based on a foundation of knowledge and sound reasoning can lead the company into long-term prosperity; conversely, decisions made on the basis of flawed logic, emotionalism, or incomplete information can quickly put a business out of commission. In many instances, business decisions have been guided by parametric tests and processes and /or non-parametric tests and processes of inferential statistics, which have subsequently affected the futures of business differently. As we refer to population mean knowledge for hypothesis testing using parametric tests, we only refer to mediums for samples, for nonparametric tests. A parameter is a characteristic that describes a population. These may include μ (the Mean), δ2 (the variance) of a distribution. We commonly refer to the normal distribution, when it is symmetric, with the measures of central tendency (Mean = medium = mode). Usually these parameters are very useful, when testing hypotheses to enable researchers and decision makers infer about the population using samples. It would always be better to have knowledge of or/and about the population parameters, but more often than not, we find ourselves with very minimal, or no knowledge about the population parameters. To make the generalization about the population from the sample, statistical tests are used. In other words, we want to know if we have relationships, associations, or differences within our data and whether statistical significance exists. Inferential statistics help us make these determinations and allow us to generalize the results to a larger population. We employ parametric and nonparametric statistics to show basic inferential statistics by examining the associations among variables and tests of differences between groups. It is recommended by many scholars that business analysis uses parametric and nonparametric inferential statistics in making decisions about effects of independent variables on dependent variables. On the contrary, it is argued that the use of inferential statistics adds nothing to the complex and admittedly subjective, no statistical methods that are often employed in applied business decision making analysis. There are several attacks made on inferential statistics, perhaps with increasing frequency, by those who are not business analysts. These attackers are not in for the use of inferential statistics in research and business decision making, and commonly recommend the use of interval estimation or the method of confidence intervals. However, interval estimation is shown to be contrary to the fundamental assumption of business decision making analysis.

Revisão Sistemática dos estudos experimentais publicados na “Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento” de 2010 a 2018


 O presente trabalho apresenta uma revisão sistemática dos artigos experimentais publicados na revista brasileira Perspectivas em Análise do Comportamento (RPAC) desde a sua fundação em 2010 até o ano de 2018. Foram consideradas elegíveis para análise todas as pesquisas experimentais. A análise das 15 pesquisas selecionadas revelou: (1) pequeno número de pesquisas experimentais; (2) humanos como principal tipo de participantes utilizado; (3) preferência por delineamentos intra-sujeitos e por registros computadorizados; (4) prevalência de pesquisas básicas; (5) predominância de pesquisas envolvendo equivalência de estímulos; (6) pouco uso da estatística inferencial; e (7) pouca atenção à generalização, integridade e acordo entre observadores em pesquisas aplicadas. Além dessa visão preliminar sobre o comportamento de pesquisa de analistas do comportamento, os dados obtidos pelo presente estudo sugerem a necessidade de uma maior ênfase experimental.

O ensino de habilidades terapêuticas em FAP: uma revisão de literatura


 Nenhuma revisão enfocou exclusivamente em estudos sobre o ensino de FAP para terapeutas. Investigações sobre o ensino de FAP para terapeutas são fundamentais para a sua implementação e disseminação. Este estudo pretendeu realizar uma revisão de literatura com o objetivo de identificar e analisar os estudos empíricos que descreveram, analisaram ou avaliaram estratégias de ensino para a formação de psicólogos em FAP. A busca dos textos ocorreu na plataforma de bases de dados Periódicos CAPES, na base de dados da PEPSIC e no Catálogo de Teses e Dissertações da CAPES, em um site da FAP e nas referências dos estudos. Categorias de análise foram utilizadas para avaliar a qualidade metodológica dos estudos e as estratégias de ensino utilizadas para o treinamento. Foram encontrados 10 artigos e duas dissertações. Foram identificados dois grupos de pesquisa produtivos vinculados a Universidade de Washington e UFPR. Em relação aos aspectos metodológicos, dois estudos foram correlacionais, dois foram estudos de caso e oito empregaram metodologias experimentais. Dos estudos experimentais, quatro utilizaram delineamentos de sujeito único e outros quatro empregaram delineamentos entre grupos. Observou-se a utilização de vários cuidados metodológicos nos dois tipos de estudos experimentais, sendo que o controle experimental aumentou nos estudos mais recentes. As estratégias de ensino utilizadas foram: supervisão (5); treinamento de habilidades em grupo - modalidade online (2) e modalidade presencial (1); e workshop (2).

Lecturer teaching styles and student learning involvement in large classes: a Taiwan case study

ABSTRACT Previous studies have indicated the challenges posed by large classes in promoting quality education and better student learning. This paper argues that empirically exploring other latent variables inherent in the pedagogical triangle of the teacher, the learner and the content hold a number of promises in elucidating the dynamics of large classes as an emerging phenomenon in global higher education. This study intends to examine how university lecturers’ teaching styles moderate the relationship between teaching job and student learning involvement in the context of large classes. A multi-aspect survey was conducted with 446 electrical engineering students from six public universities in Taiwan. The use of inferential statistics revealed marked differences in the lecturers’ teaching job involvement and teaching styles when grouped according to institutional types, positions at their respective universities, and years of service. Notably, among the various teaching styles, the expert-model and delegator teaching styles can significantly predict students’ learning involvement; the formal authority teaching style moderates the relationship between lecturers’ teaching job involvement and students’ learning involvement. General implications are drawn from these findings and are discussed as they apply to the teaching of large classes.

EFFECTIVENESS OF TAXPAYER EDUCATION ON TAX COMPLIANCE FOR SMALL AND MEDIUM ENTERPRISES IN KENYA: A STUDY OF SELECTED BUSINESS ENTERPRISES IN KITENGELA TOWN IN KAJIADO COUNTY

This research paper aim was to establish the effectiveness of taxpayer education on tax compliance for SMEs in Kitengela town. There are reasons why KRA never met its revenue targets and the revenue collected has never surpassed the target set aside by the commission. The non-compliance of tax by SMEs can be attributed to the tax gap that is available in every fiscal year. KRA conducts taxpayer education to all registered SMEs in an effort to improve the existing level of tax compliance. The only way KRA will meet their target revenue is when they include all SMEs in the generation of the revenue. The study was anchored on Theory of Reasoned Action and Fisher Tax Compliance Model while the study variables were PAYE form of tax, tax rates, tax compliance cost, tax penalties and fines. The target population of the study were 1400 SMEs with a sample that was random stratified chosen of 140 SMEs. The data was analyzed using descriptive statistics, inferential statistics and SSPS version 24.0. The inferential statistics was employed to establish the relations that exist between the study variables. Pearson correlation matrix was used for predicting and describing the variables in terms of directions and magnitude while regression analysis was conducted at a level of 5%. The data analysis tools will be SSPS and the use of inferential statistics. The study established that the effectiveness of taxpayer education on tax compliance and all the predictors as shown by beta coefficients: PAYE (? = 0.542); tax rates (? = 0.482) and tax penalties and fines (? = 0.632). However, the study established there is a positive but statistically insignificant relationship (? =0.06, p= 0.671>0.05) between tax compliance cost and tax payer education. The study concluded that tax rates, PAYE, tax penalties and fines contribute greatly to tax compliance and finally tax compliance cost have the most significant influence on tax compliance. The study recommends that KRA should have an office in every county that will address tax issues at county level and the services to be offered should include tax penalties, filing of tax returns, tax computation and tax differentiation.

Basic statistics: A research primer for low- and middle-income countries.

Statistics can be used to describe data or make inferences about populations using samples. Median values (the 50th percentile) better represent central tendency of data samples than means (averages), particularly when data have extreme values. Errors resulting from use of inferential statistics when using classical hypothesis testing include type I (finding a difference between groups when one does not exist) and type II (failure to find a true difference) errors. Confounding variables (those that vary with both the dependent variable and independent variable) may lead to spurious associations. Classical hypothesis testing and reporting only p-values tends to be greatly overused and overemphasized. Confidence intervals provide a range of values for a sample within a certain probability (commonly 95%). Confidence intervals can thus describe sizes of likely differences between samples, and are much more clinically useful information than only p-values. Before doing a study, the required sample size should be calculated to assess study feasibility. Doing so requires specification of the acceptable risk of type I and II errors and the size of the lowest clinically meaningful difference between groups.

Assessing the Statistical Analyses Used in Basic and Applied Social Psychology After Their p-Value Ban

ABSTRACT In this article, we assess the 31 articles published in Basic and Applied Social Psychology (BASP) in 2016, which is one full year after the BASP editors banned the use of inferential statistics. We discuss how the authors collected their data, how they reported and summarized their data, and how they used their data to reach conclusions. We found multiple instances of authors overstating conclusions beyond what the data would support if statistical significance had been considered. Readers would be largely unable to recognize this because the necessary information to do so was not readily available.

The invasion of psychoacoustics by inferential statistics

The basic results that form the psychoacoustic foundation of our current knowledge of auditory perception, collected over nearly 50 years, were generated without any use of null-hypothesis significance testing (inferential statistics). The common use of inferential statistics in psychoacoustic articles published in JASA did not occur until the 1980s. Yet, today it is almost impossible to publish a psychoacoustic article in JASA, or anywhere else, without using inferential statistics. In addition, recent controversies concerning replication in the social and behavioral sciences are beginning to encroach on the field of psychoacoustics. In this presentation, a case will be made that several elements of the experimental design inherent to many, if not most, psychoacoustic experiments often make the use of inferential statistics unnecessary. These aspects (many derived from the framework of the Theory of Signal Detection) include careful experimental control of stimuli and response acquisition, ratio-scale measurements, experienced subjects, large number of trials per subject, within-subject (repeated measures) experimental design, and strong theoretical context (e.g., an ideal observer). Some scenarios of experimental design and data presentation will be considered, suggesting that inferential statistical analysis might not be needed in some psychoacoustic research. [Work supported by NIDCD and Facebook Reality Labs.]The basic results that form the psychoacoustic foundation of our current knowledge of auditory perception, collected over nearly 50 years, were generated without any use of null-hypothesis significance testing (inferential statistics). The common use of inferential statistics in psychoacoustic articles published in JASA did not occur until the 1980s. Yet, today it is almost impossible to publish a psychoacoustic article in JASA, or anywhere else, without using inferential statistics. In addition, recent controversies concerning replication in the social and behavioral sciences are beginning to encroach on the field of psychoacoustics. In this presentation, a case will be made that several elements of the experimental design inherent to many, if not most, psychoacoustic experiments often make the use of inferential statistics unnecessary. These aspects (many derived from the framework of the Theory of Signal Detection) include careful experimental control of stimuli and response acquisition, ratio-scale me...

Examining patterns of injury occurrence in rural and urban settings in sub-Saharan Africa: A critical review of the literature

The paper critically reviews literature on patterns of injury occurrence in rural and urban areas in sub-Saharan Africa. Findings are based on research reports from eight countries purposively selected from major geographical regions in sub-Saharan Africa. From West Africa are selected Nigeria and Ghana; Uganda, Kenya and Tanzania represent East Africa; Rwanda for Central-Eastern Africa; Republic of South Africa for South Africa and Zambia for Central-South Africa. The selected countries are among those where adequate research work on injuries in urban and rural settings has been done. The Sahel region is not listed because it was found that no serious work on injury occurrence by rural and urban has been done in the region. Eight variables, namely, general causes of injury, rate of injury occurrence, severity of injury, persons involved in road traffic injuries (passengers and pedestrians), causes common to both settings, vehicles mostly involved in the injuries, child injuries and age group mostly affected form the basis for the analyses. The review establishes, among other patterns, that rural settings suffer greater severity and higher mortality from injuries through road traffic accidents and occupational (agricultural-related) injuries whilst other injuries including those suffered through pedestrian crossings, burns, cuts and falls are predominant in urban areas. Although a few works tilted the severity of the injuries through motor traffic accidents to the urban areas, the high incidence of occurrence in both rural and urban areas was still upheld. It is recommended, among other considerations, that rural areas be given priority in the establishment of injury clinics whilst the spatial techniques of remote sensing and geographical information systems (GIS), the mixed methods approach and use of inferential statistics be more applicable to capturing and analysing data on injuries.

Predictors of Publication Rates for Abstracts Presented at the American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy Annual Meetings

Objective. To examine trends in manuscript publication rates for abstracts presented at the 2000, 2005, 2010, and 2015 American Association of Colleges of Pharmacy (AACP) annual meetings. Methods. A systematic search of PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar was performed. "New" colleges and schools of pharmacy were defined as receiving accreditation after 1996. Contingency tables and t-tests were applied. Results. There were 1382 abstracts evaluated. The overall publication rate was 20% and there was no difference in publication rates over 15 years. The median time to publication for years 2000, 2005, and 2010 was 15 months. The most frequent journal for publication was the American Journal of Pharmaceutical Education. The primary analysis identified several predictors for publication, including collaboration, presence of a PhD pharmaceutical program or academic medical center, and use of inferential statistics. There was no difference in manuscript publication when comparing "new" and legacy schools. Conclusion. The publication rate of AACP abstracts has remained steady despite the increase in pharmacy schools and colleges and faculty. Collaboration among institutions was the strongest predictor for publication, highlighting its importance. The low publication rate observed may be attributed to a lack of training for junior faculty, insufficient forums to publish work, or misaligned motivations for scholarship among faculty. These barriers should be examined further.

New Derivation Method of Region Specific Curve Number for Urban Runoff Prediction at Melana Watershed in Johor, Malaysia

The Soil Conservation Services (SCS) rainfall-runoff model has been incorporated into many types of software and adopted by Malaysian government agencies for design use. However, hydrologists argue the accuracy of the predicted runoff results from this model in recent decades. Malaysia does not have a regional specific curve numbers available for the use in rainfall-runoff modelling, and therefore SCS-CN practitioner has no option but to adopt its guideline and handbook values which are specific to US region. Unlike the conventional SCS-CN technique, the proposed calibration methodology in this paper discarded the use of CN as input to the SCS model, rearranged the model equation and derived statistically significant CN value(s) of a specific region through rainfall-runoff events directly through the use of inferential statistics. The SCS rainfall-runoff framework can now be calibrated quickly to address urban runoff prediction challenge under rapid land use and land cover or climate changes with the proposed methodology. Between July and October of 2004, the derived λ was 0.0005 while λ = 0.20 was found to be statistically insignificant at alpha = 0.01 level at Melana watershed in Johor, Malaysia. Optimum CN of 90.45 was derived to represent the rainfall-runoff characteristic of Melana watershed. Runoff prediction error was reduced by 90% and achieved the Nash-Sutcliffe (NS) index of 0.86. The new method can provide CN adjustment guidelines for SCS practitioners and any software which incorporated the model to predict urban runoff.

Evaluation of the “On the level” psychoeducational group programme for Bipolar Affective Disorder in a rural context

Introduction: The delivery of psychoeducational group programmes is a National Institute for Clinical Excellence recommended treatment for Bipolar Affective Disorder for which there is good evidence for effectiveness, acceptability, and cost-effectiveness. “On the level” is a group-CBT based psychoeducational intervention for adults experiencing BPAD developed by the North Lee Adult Mental Health Service. The present study aims to evaluate the “On the level” group as implemented by the North Cork Adult Mental Health Service at Mallow Primary Healthcare Centre. Methods: The study will employ a mixed methods approach with a quantitative and qualitative arm. The quantitative arm will employ a repeated measures design using outcome measures assessing depressive and manic symptomatology at three time points: pre-intervention, post-intervention, and 3-month follow-up. For the qualitative arm, participants will be invited to participate in a focus group which will probe for pertinent issues with regard to access, positive and negative experience of the group, and perceived effectiveness of the group. Results: Scores on outcome measures will be transformed into standard scores and clinically meaningful changed assessed on the basis that a Discussions/conclusions: Results will be discussed in relation to the overall effectiveness of the group and in relation to issues revealed surrounding access, experiences of the group, and perceived usefulness. Lessons learned: This is the first evaluation of “On the Level” which has been implemented in a rural context and so it is anticipated that this study will reveal a number of unique aspects of this context which will inform future offerings. Limitations: The sample size used in the study will be small which will prevent the use of inferential statistics, and the creation of a control group will not be possible. Suggestions for future research: Future studies should be prospective in nature, group allocation should be randomised, and an active control group included.

Pseudoreplication and the usage of biomarkers in ecotoxicological bioassays.

Pseudoreplication is a widely discussed topic in the scientific community. Its principal critique concerns the lack of independence in flawed experimental designs and the use of inferential statistics to test the hypothesis of such experiments. Thirty years after its appearance, it remains misunderstood by many researchers, including ecotoxicologists. In the present study, we try to clarify some of its concepts by filling in what seems to be a gap in the terminology of manipulative experiments. We propose the term "experimental medium" to refer strictly to the relevant spatial scale of the experiment to preserve the specificity of the experimental and observational units and to display pseudoreplication as a kind of misinterpretation and/or misanalysis of inferential statistics. A classification of the types of experimental designs in ecotoxicology is offered, and the problems in using inferential statistics in suboptimal designs are discussed. We hope to shed some light on such a classic topic for ecotoxicologists. Environ Toxicol Chem 2017;36:2868-2874. © 2017 SETAC.

Applying behavior-analytic methodology to the science and practice of environmental enrichment in zoos and aquariums.

Environmental enrichment in zoos and aquariums is often evaluated at two overlapping levels: published research and day-to-day institutional record keeping. Several authors have discussed ongoing challenges with small sample sizes in between-groups zoological research and have cautioned against the inappropriate use of inferential statistics (Shepherdson, , International Zoo Yearbook, 38, 118-124; Shepherdson, Lewis, Carlstead, Bauman, & Perrin, Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 147, 298-277; Swaisgood, , Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 139-162; Swaisgood & Shepherdson, , Zoo Biology, 24, 499-518). Multi-institutional studies are the typically-prescribed solution, but these are expensive and difficult to carry out. Kuhar ( Zoo Biology, 25, 339-352) provided a reminder that inferential statistics are only necessary when one wishes to draw general conclusions at the population level. Because welfare is assessed at the level of the individual animal, we argue that evaluations of enrichment efficacy are often instances in which inferential statistics may be neither necessary nor appropriate. In recent years, there have been calls for the application of behavior-analytic techniques to zoo animal behavior management, including environmental enrichment (e.g., Bloomsmith, Marr, & Maple, , Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 205-222; Tarou & Bashaw, , Applied Animal Behaviour Science, 102, 189-204). Single-subject (also called single-case, or small-n) designs provide a means of designing evaluations of enrichment efficacy based on an individual's behavior. We discuss how these designs might apply to research and practice goals at zoos and aquariums, contrast them with standard practices in the field, and give examples of how each could be successfully applied in a zoo or aquarium setting.

CHALLENGES AFFECTING USE OF I.C.T BY SMALL & MEDIUM SIZED ENTERPRISES (SMES) IN KENYA: A CASE STUDY OF TSAVO SECURITIES LTD

Purpose: The purpose of the study was to underscore the challenges faced by Small and Medium Sized Enterprises (SMEs) in using Information Communication Technologies (ICT) in the case of Tsavo Securities Ltd.Methodology: A descriptive case study design was used in this study and the population (32 employees) constituted all the employees appearing on the employment register. A sample of 50% (16) was selected from the population. A self-report questionnaire was the data collection tool used in this study. The data was analyzed by use of inferential statistics and presented using graphs and charts.Results: Findings in this study indicate that inadequate funds and costs of acquiring hardware and software, inadequate training, lack of an ICT policy and poor ICT security were fundamental challenges facing SMEs in Kenya. Benefits accruing to SMEs from the use of ICT were competitive advantage, local expansion and cost saving.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The researcher concluded that the above challenges affected the use of ICT use by SMEs. Consequently, the researcher suggested several solutions to curb these challenges. The deepening of the local SME financial market was advocated for to curb the challenge of finance. In addition, the introduction of an ICT policy was advocated for. Training needs needed to be addressed by the introduction of government sponsored ICT training initiatives. The study recommended an investigation into the causal relationship between ICT use and financial performance.

An evaluation of ecological impact assessment procedural effectiveness over time

Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an important tool to help decision-makers balance the environmental impacts of a proposed built development with its potential economic benefits. Used in most countries across the globe, EIA commonly includes an ecological component (Ecological Impact Assessment, or EcIA). However, despite considerable changes in relevant legislation, policy and guidance, there has been no recent review of UK EcIA chapter content, with the latest review having been published in 2000.This study attempts to determine the procedural effectiveness of EcIA chapters over time by comparing a new review of 112 English EcIA chapters from 2000 onwards with earlier reviews. This was achieved through the novel use of inferential statistics, an approach previously lacking in the EIA and EcIA review literature.The limitations and advantages of the use of quantitative methods are discussed. In general, there has been an improvement in the information content of EcIA chapters over time, for example in the percentage of EcIA chapters stating the size of the development and estimating the likely effectiveness of proposed mitigation measures. However, the earlier reviews highlighted such severe information deficiencies that the progress seen in the post-2000 EcIA chapter review still leaves considerable scope for improvement.Changes in the EU’s EIA Directive in force since May 2014 (and to be transposed into Member State legislation by May 2017) have the potential to encourage the use of inferential statistics in EIA and EcIA review: the requirement for Member States to provide central access to EIA information should enable representative samples to be analysed.

AN ASSESSMENT OF THE PRACTICE OF SOCIAL RESPONSIBILITY ACCOUNTING BY FIRMS IN KENYA: A CASE STUDY OF SAFARICOM KENYA

Purpose: This study was an assessment of the practice of corporate social responsibility accounting by firms in Kenya in the case of Safaricom Kenya.Methodology: A case study design was appropriate for this study. The population used in this study entailed all the 1850 employees of safaricom. Judgmental sampling was used to select the respondents i.e. 24 in number, 8 respondents from the finance department, 8 respondents from the public relations department, 4 respondents from the sales department and 4 committee members of the Safaricom foundation. Primary data was collected by the use of a questionnaire and was the main data used in the research. The data collected was analyzed by use of inferential statistics. In particular, frequency tables, averages and percentages were used. The data was then presented using tables, graphs and charts.Results: The study findings showed that to a large extent, environmental management of the production process and environmental policy were issues reported in the safaricom CSR report. In addition, climate protection and energy eco-efficiency were reported in the safaricom CSR reports to a low extent respectively. Furthermore, its practice of CSR was driven by a genuine concern for creating shareholders wealth (business case) as well as engagement and accountability. It was also observed that another motive for practicing CSR was PR based (striving to better than competitors). However, some of the challenges facing accounting for social responsibility (social accounting) were related to verifiability requirements, comparability requirements, training requirements, standardization requirements, and quantification requirements.Unique contribution to theory, practice and policy: The study recommended that Safaricom should maintain its trend for addressing corporate social responsibility issues and come up with measures that can be used to make social accounting in the firm to be less costly. The researcher recommended an investigative study to establish the level of usefulness of the CSR reports to various users. In addition, a correlation and a regression study explaining the relationship between CSR and firms financial performance would be in order.

Sampling issues in bibliometric analysis

Bibliometricians face several issues when drawing and analyzing samples of citation records for their research. Drawing samples that are too small may make it difficult or impossible for studies to achieve their goals, while drawing samples that are too large may drain resources that could be better used for other purposes. This paper considers three common situations and offers advice for dealing with each. First, an entire population of records is available for an institution. We argue that, even though all records have been collected, the use of inferential statistics, significance testing, and confidence intervals is both common and desirable. Second, because of limited resources or other factors, a sample of records needs to be drawn. We demonstrate how power analyses can be used to determine in advance how large the sample needs to be to achieve the study's goals. Third, the sample size may already be determined, either because the data have already been collected or because resources are limited. We show how power analyses can again be used to determine how large effects need to be in order to find effects that are statistically significant. Such information can then help bibliometricians to develop reasonable expectations as to what their analysis can accomplish. While we focus on issues of interest to bibliometricians, our recommendations and procedures can easily be adapted for other fields of study.

Inferential statistics and the use of administrative data in US educational research

ABSTRACTWhile the use of inferential statistics is a nearly universal practice in the social sciences, there are instances where its application is unnecessary and potentially misleading. This is true for a portion of research using administrative data in educational research in the United States. Surveying all research articles using administrative data published in Educational Researcher and American Educational Research Journal between 2011 and 2013, we find that over half use inferential techniques to help interpret results despite the use of population data. To the extent that these practices and findings are replicated and interpreted in the United States and elsewhere, this can lead to the undervaluing of potentially meaningful patterns and trends.

Don't let spurious accusations of pseudoreplication limit our ability to learn from natural experiments (and other messy kinds of ecological monitoring).

Pseudoreplication is defined as the use of inferential statistics to test for treatment effects where treatments are not replicated and/or replicates are not statistically independent. It is a genuine but controversial issue in ecology particularly in the case of costly landscape‐scale manipulations, behavioral studies where ethics or other concerns may limit sample sizes, ad hoc monitoring data, and the analysis of natural experiments where chance events occur at a single site. Here key publications on the topic are reviewed to illustrate the debate that exists about the conceptual validity of pseudoreplication. A survey of ecologists and case studies of experimental design and publication issues are used to explore the extent of the problem, ecologists’ solutions, reviewers’ attitudes, and the fate of submitted manuscripts. Scientists working across a range of ecological disciplines regularly come across the problem of pseudoreplication and build solutions into their designs and analyses. These include carefully defining hypotheses and the population of interest, acknowledging the limits of statistical inference and using statistical approaches including nesting and random effects. Many ecologists face considerable challenges getting their work published if accusations of pseudoreplication are made – even if the problem has been dealt with. Many reviewers reject papers for pseudoreplication, and this occurs more often if they haven't experienced the issue themselves. The concept of pseudoreplication is being applied too dogmatically and often leads to rejection during review. There is insufficient consideration of the associated philosophical issues and potential statistical solutions. By stopping the publication of ecological studies, reviewers are slowing the pace of ecological research and limiting the scope of management case studies, natural events studies, and valuable data available to form evidence‐based solutions. Recommendations for fair and consistent treatment of pseudoreplication during writing and review are given for authors, reviewers, and editors.