Use Of Feeding Sites Research Articles

Temporal occurrence and species composition of birds on artificial feeding sites maintained for game mammals in the Dinaric Mountains, Slovenia

Artificial feeding is a widely used management tool, but it often attracts nontarget species, including birds, to permanent feeding sites. This study used camera traps to monitor the presence of birds at selected sites used for bear management in Dinaric forest. A large number of bird species (35) were recorded, representing roughly half of all species breeding in the surrounding area. These species were grouped based on monthly and hourly presence, and corresponded to food groups, with most belonging to granivores or scavengers. Some species, such as Pigeons (Columba sp.), Raven (Corvus corax) and Buzzard (Buteo buteo), adapted their presence to the availability of food at the feeding sites, while others were not affected by this. Both Chaffinches (Fringilla coelebs) and Jays (Garrulus glandarius) frequented the feeding sites, but their temporal presence was influenced by their biology rather than by food availability. The Sparrowhawk (Accipiter nisus) also adapted its presence to food availability, and its presence was closely associated with that of the Jay. This study confirms the temporal differences in the use of feeding sites by birds and mammals, which is likely due to their different biology and past management. This can be used to make wildlife management more efficient and reduce the undesirable effects of artificial feeding.

Does artificial feeding affect large carnivore behaviours? The case study of brown bears in a hunted and tourist exploited subpopulation

Artificial food supplementation of wildlife is an increasing practice for species conservation, as well as for hunting and viewing tourism. Yet, our understanding of the implications of wildlife supplementary feeding is still very limited. Concerns have been raised over the potential negative impact of artificial feeding, but the effects of this practice on animal movements and rhythms of activity are just beginning to be investigated. Here, with the aim of studying whether the artificial feeding of brown bears may affect their behaviour, we analysed (1) the probability and intensity of feeding site use at different temporal scales, (2) how the use of artificial feeding sites is related to the bear's age and sex, main periods of the bear's annual cycle (i.e. mating and hyperphagia) and characteristics of the feeding sites, and (3) how the use of artificial feeding may be affecting bear movement patterns. We analysed the movements of 71 radio-collared brown bears in southern-central Finland and western Russian Karelia. Artificial feeding sites had several effects on brown bears in boreal habitats. The probability of a feeding site being used was positively correlated to the stability of this food resource over time, whereas sexes and bear classes (subadults, adults and females with cubs) did not show significant differences in the use of feeding sites, which were visited predominantly at night and slightly more during hyperphagia. The probability of using an artificial feeding site affected the daily net distance only (bears using feeding sites: 3.5 ± 4.5 km, range: 0–29 km; bears not using feeding sites: 4.4 ± 4.9 km, range: 0–47 km). Those brown bears using artificial feeding more intensively moved shorter distances at a lower speed within smaller home ranges compared to bears that used this food sources less. Highly predictable and continuously available anthropogenic food may therefore have substantial impacts on brown bear movement patterns, ecology and health. The recorded changes in movement patterns support the evidence that artificial feeding may have important implications for bear ecology and conservation.

Ecological and Behavioral Drivers of Supplemental Feeding Use by Roe Deer Capreolus capreolus in a Peri-Urban Context.

Simple SummarySupplementary feeding of ungulates is widespread in many European countries. However, little is known on the actual patterns of use of feeding sites by animals, and the effects of this practice on inter-individual relationships. We monitored the use of feeding sites in a population of roe deer living in the Italian Alps using camera traps, to enable continuous monitoring of feeding sites and to detect co-occurring visits by multiple individuals. We found that roe deer visits to feeding sites decreased from winter to spring at the onset of vegetation regrowth and when the temperature increases. During the 24 h cycle, roe deer visited feeding sites mainly at crepuscular hours, both solitarily (the majority of the cases) and in groups, with no substantial differences between sexes. When roe deer gathered at feeding sites, they spent more time there, therefore, exhibiting a certain tolerance to the presence of conspecifics. The presence and use of feeding sites did not alter the daily activity cycle and opportunistic use of resources in roe deer, however, they conditioned the intra-specific interactions, with potential behavioral and epidemiological consequences.Winter supplemental feeding of ungulates potentially alters their use of resources and ecological interactions, yet relatively little is known about the patterns of feeding sites use by target populations. We used camera traps to continuously monitor winter and spring feeding site use in a roe deer population living in a peri-urban area in Northern Italy. We combined circular statistics with generalized additive and linear mixed models to analyze the diel and seasonal pattern of roe deer visits to feeding sites, and the behavioral drivers influencing visit duration. Roe deer visits peaked at dawn and dusk, and decreased from winter to spring when vegetation regrows and temperature increases. Roe deer mostly visited feeding sites solitarily; when this was not the case, they stayed longer at the site, especially when conspecifics were eating, but maintained a bimodal diel pattern of visits. These results support an opportunistic use of feeding sites, following seasonal cycles and the roe deer circadian clock. Yet, the attractiveness of these artificial resources has the potential to alter intra-specific relationships, as competition for their use induces gatherings and may extend the contact time between individuals, with potential behavioral and epidemiological consequences.

Raba krmišč pri navadnem muflonu (Ovis orientalis musimon) na Gorenjskem

Mouflon (Ovis orientalis musimon) is currently the most abundant but poorly studied introduced ungulate species in Slovenia. Studies are rare also elsewhere across Europe, especially in respect to the use of artificial feeding sites, although supplemental feeding is common practice in many countries. We used camera-traps to determine group structure of mouflons using five winter feeding sites in the Gorenjska region (Julian Alps, NW Slovenia). We also studied their circadian activity and the use of mouflon feeding sites by other species. Average group size was 3.5 animals and feeding sites were most often used by ewes with their offspring. We recorded two peaks in circadian use of feeding sites at sunrise and sunset. We recorded six other species using the feeding sites, red deer (Cervus elaphus) being the most dominant among them. Use of camera-traps at the artificial feeding sites proved to be an efficient method to monitor mouflon population and their use of feeding sites.

Supplementary ungulate feeding affects movement behavior of brown bears

Food availability plays a key role in animal movements. Anthropogenic provisioning of food to wildlife is a common practice of unprecedented magnitude worldwide and is of increasing conservation concern. Ungulate supplementary feeding is widespread in game management; however its effects on non-target species have received little attention. Here, we investigate how ungulate feeding affects the movement behavior of a non-target species, the brown bear (Ursus arctos). We tracked bear movements in the Northeastern Carpathians (1500km2) and inventoried 212 ungulate feeding sites. We analyzed encounter rates of nine GPS-collared bears with ungulate feeding sites (1658km, n=49 tracks) and compared them with the corresponding encounter rate of simulated tracks. We also estimated the encounter rate with feeding sites using snow-tracking of unknown bears (232km, n=40 tracks). GPS-tracked bears encountered feeding sites three times more frequently (mean±SE=0.154±0.022 per km travelled) than would be expected if they were moving randomly (0.054±0.0010 per km random walk). The rate was even higher for snow-tracked bears, which visited on average 0.926±0.271 feeding sites per kilometer travelled. This suggests a link between the winter activity of some individuals and their frequent use of feeding sites. Bears seemed to rely on spatial memory and patrol known sites, independent of whether food was available at the feeding sites. This alteration of the natural behavior of species with behavioral flexibility, such as brown bears, could be interpreted as a sign of environmental degradation. Our results demonstrate an important effect of ungulate feeding on the movement ecology of non-target species. We warn of the impacts of this practice on species and ecosystems and highlight the need to preserve natural movement behaviors and urgently reevaluate management practices involving food provisioning to wildlife.

Influence of Heavy Snow on the Feeding Behavior of Japanese Macaques (Macaca Fuscata) in Northern Japan

Natural disasters can degrade primate habitat and alter feeding behavior. Here, we examined the influence of unusually heavy snow on diet and feeding-site use by Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) in northern Japan. To compare the winter-feeding behavior under different snow conditions, we recorded the plant species foraged on by macaques in multiple transects of the Shirakami Mountains from 2008 to 2012 (excluding 2011). We used cluster analysis to describe foraged plant assemblages, and applied multiple dimensional scaling and decision tree modeling to evaluate annual variation in feeding-site use by macaques. Our cluster analysis revealed five types of foraged plant assemblages. The proportion of each type present in transects varied considerably across the years, indicating that the diet of macaques in heavy snow conditions was influenced more by resource accessibility than by preference. Multiple dimensional scaling and decision tree modeling demonstrated that heavy snow conditions restricted feeding-site use. Moreover, the distribution of refuges relative to severe external ambient environments was a stronger limiting factor for feeding-site use than was the availability of food resources. While most primate species facing unexpected starvation employ risk-prone foraging tactics (i.e., choosing the option with higher pay-off by accepting risk), Japanese macaques have a tendency to adopt risk-averse foraging behavior (i.e., minimizing energy loss when searching for preferred diet items under long-lasting heavy snow conditions), because winters with temperatures below freezing have higher thermoregulatory costs.

Effects of the feeding of wild Yeso sika deer (Cervus nippon yesoensis) on the prevention of damage due to bark stripping and the use of feeding sites

Feeding sites for wild Yeso sika deer around Lake Akan, Japan, were established. Effects on the number of deer using the feeding sites, the prevention of bark stripping damage, the amount of feeding, and eating time in a 5-year period (1999-2003) were evaluated. The number of deer using feeding sites increased with years during the feeding period. The damaged tree ratio after the initiation of feeding markedly decreased compared with 16.5% before the initiation of feeding. After the start of feeding, there were no trees with damage the entire circumference. According to tree species, the number of damaged trees of Ulmus laciniata Mayr as a percentage of all investigated trees was high (5.2%). The total amount of beet pulp feeding increased with the feeding year, showing 4.5-fold increase. At feeding sites in deer culling, eating behavior was observed during the night. The preventive effects on bark stripping damage continued during the 5-year feeding period. However, with the course of feeding years, the number of deer using feeding sites and the level of feeding increased.

The effect of supplementary winter seed food on breeding populations of farmland birds: evidence from two large‐scale experiments

Summary Low winter food availability is probably critical in the declines of many farmland bird species in Europe, leading to the implementation of ameliorative agri‐environment scheme options. To date, however, there has been no experimental test of the effectiveness of such options. We report the results of two large‐scale, 3‐year, controlled experiments investigating the effects of supplementary winter seed provision on breeding farmland bird abundance. In each experiment, the use of winter feeding sites by birds was monitored and the availability of alternative, seed‐rich habitat in the surrounding area was measured. The Winter Food for Birds (WFFB) project also included variable levels of food provision. Breeding bird abundance was then monitored in experimental and control areas. The Bird Aid project targeted yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella L., corn bunting Emberiza calandra L. and tree sparrow Passer montanus L., while WFFB considered 11 species that used supplementary winter food. Comparisons of trends in breeding abundance between experimental and control areas revealed little evidence for positive effects of feeding, but there was great variation in the use of feeding sites by each species, and therefore in the seed quantity birds received. Declines for yellowhammer, robin and dunnock were less steep where more food was provided in WFFB areas (a fourfold difference in seed provision across 1·5 times the land area). Analysing trends with respect to weight‐of‐use of winter food revealed significant, positive relationships for yellowhammer (both projects) and up to five other species, depending on the control terms applied. Thus, positive effects of feeding on population change depend on the effective supply of seed to the species of interest. The hypothesis that winter food is currently limiting the populations concerned is also supported. Synthesis and applications. Effective winter food provision to farmland bird populations has the potential to halt, and perhaps to reverse, declines in abundance. In practice, this means that agri‐environment measures supplying significant quantities of winter food, such as stubbles preceded by low‐input cereals, should succeed in changing population trends if they provide resources at the times of greatest need and if there is sufficient uptake.

The effect of the spatial distribution of winter seed food resources on their use by farmland birds

Summary Agri‐environment measures providing winter seed are central to current management activities aiming to reverse granivorous farmland bird declines. Previous research has considered the effectiveness of particular agri‐environment options, but the influence of their distribution in the landscape, an important factor in determining cost‐effectiveness, has received less attention. We used a large‐scale field experiment in eastern England, featuring 10 replicates of a spatial arrangement of seven artificial feeding stations separated by different distances, to investigate bird movements between discrete winter food resources. Feeding sites were established and bird use monitored at least weekly over two winters (November–March). Habitat type in the areas surrounding the feeding sites was also recorded. Two measures of feeding site use were analysed as functions of the distance from the nearest alternative feeding site, controlling for ambient resource availability, for 11 passerines (including chaffinch Fringilla coelebs, reed bunting Emberiza schoeniclus and yellowhammer Emberiza citrinella and non‐granivores such as blue tit Parus caeruleus). Feeding site use varied significantly with separation distance for nine species. For most, both maximum counts and bird minutes were higher at more isolated sites, but the opposite was true for yellowhammer and reed bunting. Most relationships incorporated significant thresholds at separations of around 500 m, with low site use below the threshold and high above it (or vice versa). The results suggested that species such as chaffinch and blue tit made disproportionately more use of food at isolated sites than at clumped ones, but that reed buntings and yellowhammers used food in proportion to its availability, moving freely between more clumped patches. In both cases, birds tended to share resources separated by 500 m or less. At greater separations, resources tended to be used by discrete groups of birds. Radio‐tracking and colour‐ringing work produced corroborative evidence. Synthesis and applications. The response of birds to the experimental food resource distribution implies that creating resource patches more than 1 km apart should be most cost‐effective, a recommendation that can inform agri‐environment scheme planning directly. This distance may represent a minimum, however, because birds might locate standing crops more readily than inconspicuous artificial food patches.

Selection and use of feeding sites and feeding stations by herbivores: A review

Selection et utilisation des sites et stations alimentaires par les herbivores: Une revue. A terme, mieux comprendre la relation animal - vegetation est necessaire pour developper des systemes de gestion qui favorisent le maintien par le pâturage d'une ressource suffisamment riche et abondante. Dans ces conditions, l'animal peut couvrir ses besoins nutritionnels et assurer une productivite suffisante, tout en participant a l'entretien du milieu. Cette revue fait le point, a partir d'un grand nombre de travaux experimentaux, sur les facteurs qui influencent la selection et l'utilisation des sites et stations alimentaires par les herbivores. La premiere partie est consacree au cadre theorique dans lequel sont discutees les observations experimentales. Le contexte general de la theorie de l'alimentation optimale (TAO), et ses predictions, sont decrits. L'« applicabilite », l'utilite et la validite des modeles d'optimisation dans l'etude du comportement alimentaire des herbivores sont tout particulierement considerees. Ensuite, est etudiee l'influence des differents facteurs, trophiques (quantite et qualite des ressources fourrageres, distribution des especes vegetales), environnementaux (topographie, distance aux points d'eau, presence d'abris et risques de predation) et animaux (capacites cognitives et organisation sociale) sur la selection et l'utilisation des sites et des stations alimentaires par les herbivores. En depit de quelques problemes de definitions (patch, proie pour un herbivore?) et des caracteristiques specifiques des especes animales etudiees, la TAO a pu etre appliquee, avec succes, a l'etude des strategies alimentaires des herbivores. Cependant, les choix ne sont en general pas aussi absolus que ceux predits par la theorie, En conditions naturelles, les animaux repondent non seulement a la ressource alimentaire, mais aussi a differentes contraintes externes (environnement non alimentaire) et internes (memoire, discrimination, etc.). D'autres approches complementaires, telles 1'« hedonisme » et la « sagesse nutritionnelle », susceptibles d'influencer les choix des animaux, sont aussi brievement analysees.

Wetland Feeding Site Use by White Ibises (Eudocimus albus) Breeding in Coastal South Carolina

Wetland Feeding Site Use by White Ibises (Eudocimus albus) Breeding in Coastal South Carolina

Feeding-site use by Red Squirrels, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, in a marginal habitat in Pennsylvania

Feeding-site use by Red Squirrels, Tamiasciurus hudsonicus, in a marginal habitat in Pennsylvania

Foraging Habitats of Female Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago During the Incubation Period

SUMMARY (1) The ranging behaviour of ten radio-tagged female common snipe Gallinago gallinago L. breeding in lowland wet grassland was studied during the period when they were incubating their eggs. Feeding sites were identified by radio-tracking and the diet investigated by faecal analysis. The timing and duration of absences of four females from their nests were established by automatic monitoring of the signal from the radio-tags. (2) Female snipe incubated their eggs without assistance from their mates. They left the nest for short periods (mean 15 min) during daylight and were absent from the nest for 22% of the time. The proportion of time spent away from the nest increased with increasing ambient temperature. (3) There were individual differences in the type of habitat used for feeding and the distance of feeding sites from the nest. Some birds fed in unflooded meadowland, usually near the nest, and others moved to wetter areas at the edges of pools and ditches. Snipe walked from the nest to feeding sites within about 70 m and flew to more distant sites. (4) Snipe fed on earthworms, insect larvae and snails by probing with the bill in soil and mud. They fed to a greater extent at the edges of ditches and took a greater proportion of insect larvae and snails in a year in which there was prolonged surface flooding compared with a year with less flooding when they mainly fed on earthworms in meadowland. (5) Both the density of invertebrates and the force required to probe the surface soil influenced the use of feeding sites near the nest. Females fed near their nests in unflooded meadowland, in areas with a moderate biomass density of soil invertebrates and surface soil that was easily probed. They fed in wetter habitats further from the nest if the invertebrate density near the nest was low or if the soil surface had dried out and was difficult to probe.

The Effect of Extreme Snowcover on Feeding-Site Selection by Woodland Caribou

The depth and hardness of snowcover are important factors affecting caribou (Rangifer tarandus) feeding strategies. We investigated the influence of extreme snow conditions on the distribution and use of feeding sites by caribou in the Red Wine Mountains Region, Labrador, during winter (Dec-Apr), 1982-83 and 1983-84. The tolerance of caribou to snowcover depth and hardness exceeded all previously reported thresholds. Caribou wintered in areas with mean snow depths of 176.7 cm and, to reach forage, they dug through snow with mean depths of <123.1 cm. Snowcover depths and hardnesses were similar between feeding areas and adjacent areas of similar habitat. Evidence indicated that caribou are capable of visually distinguishing among snow covered terrain features to locate forage on the ground. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 54(1):161-168 Snowcover depth and hardness affect the ability of caribou to smell forage growing on the ground (Bergerud and Nolan 1970) and the amount of energy expended to reach forage (Thing 1977, Fancy and White 1985). Across North America, when threshold tolerances of caribou to snow depth and hardness are exceeded, caribou reportedly feed on arboreal lichens or move to seek more favorable conditions (Pruitt 1959, Henshaw 1968, Stardom 1975, LaPerriere and Lent 1977). However, thresholds have been determined only where mean maximal snowcover depths ranged between 45 and 80 cm, and where the greatest depths in habitats used by caribou seldom exceeded 90

Fall Flock Behavior and Harvest of Canada Geese

We studied fall flock behavior and harvest of locally breeding Canada geese (Branta canadensis) and those that use the area as a migration stopover at the Talcot Lake Wildlife Management Area (TLWMA) in southwest Minnesota in 1980-81. We used neckbands and radio transmitters to measure movements and survival of geese. We conducted aerial and ground surveys to estimate the size of goose populations. The 800-ha TLWMA refuge provided hunting season sanctuary for geese breeding in a 1,500-km2 area surrounding the refuge. Fidelity of local geese to feeding and roosting sites was strong throughout the fall. Prehuntingseason flight patterns to feeding sites off the refuge continued despite heavy hunting pressure. Marked families from a given brood-rearing site fed and roosted together at rates greater than would have been expected by chance. This subflock behavior, combined with consistent flight patterns, resulted in differential mortality among brood-rearing groups. In contrast, migrants remained at TLWMA briefly, fed independently from local geese when off the refuge, and were harvested at a lower rate (P < 0.05) than local geese. J. WILDL. MANAGE. 52(4):679-688 The giant Canada goose (B. c. maxima) has been restored over much of its former midwestern range (Nelson 1963, Brakhage 1965, Dill and Lee 1970, Cooper 1978). This race has steadily increased to an estimated 108,000 birds in the Mississippi Flyway in 1981 (U.S. Fish and Wildl. Serv. and Can. Wildl. Serv. 1982). Although less numerous than subarctic and arctic goose populations (Bellrose 1976), resident populations of giant Canada geese provide recreation where geese were once rare or absent (Hine and Schoenfeld 1968). Management programs for local geese have included establishing additional populations, improving breeding habitat, and establishing refuges. Refuges have also contributed to an increase in subarctic and arctic nesting Canada geese stopping in the upper midwest (Vaught and Kirsch 1966, Reeves et al. 1968). Concurrent use of refuges by migrant geese and locally breeding geese is common. Goose concentrations on refuges have resulted in high hunter densities, firing lines, and crop depredations. These issues, and a goal to apportion the harvest of geese equitably in the Mississippi Flyway, have led to a search for methods to distribute migrant geese (Reeves et al. 1968). Sherwood (1968) identified hunting as an important limiting factor for restored populations; therefore, techniques are needed for managing the harvest of migrant and locally breeding geese concurrently using a refuge. An understanding of the behavior of migrant and resident geese during fall is necessary to attain this objective. Migratory and wintering subpopulations or subflocks of Canada geese have been described by Kennedy and Arthur (1974), Koerner et al. (1974), and Raveling (1969, 1978, 1979). Zicus (1981a) documented subflock behavior on the breeding grounds in summer and fall. Zicus (1981a) suggested that resident geese rearing young at specific sites associated with each other and differed from other subflocks in their use of a refuge for feeding and roosting; he speculated that subflocks may differ in their vulnerability to hunting. Our study examined behavior of resident and migrant Canada geese using a refuge concurrently during fall in southwest Minnesota. We studied chronological changes in size and composition of migrant and local flocks, use of feeding sites, family associations and mortality rates among local geese, composition of the Canada goose harvest, and factors affecting vulnerability of these geese to hunting. We thank J. R. Kitts and F. B. Martin, University of Minnesota, for reviewing the manuscript and for assisting with statistical procedures, respectively. R. J. Peterson, J. G. Beech, D. G. Opdahl, L. M. Koster, E. L. Larson, and other personnel of the Minnesota Department of Natural Resources (MDNR) helped with banding, observations, and bag checks. Additional banding assistance was provided by S. J. 1 Present address: Section of Wildlife, Minnesota Department of Natural Resources, 231 E. Second Street, Redwood Falls, MN 56283.

Daily feeding site use of urban pigeons

Small flocks (20–40 individuals) of feral rock doves (Columba livia) studied in downtown Montréal follow a bimodal daily schedule of feeding site attendance. The bimodal schedule is achieved through a summation of different usage schedules in the various areas of the sites. The latter schedules are not necessarily bimodal and reveal clear differences between individuals that otherwise share some common feeding areas. The existence of these individual differences has implications for two of the mechanisms by which flock feeding may benefit birds, information centres, and the skill pool.

Chickadees at Adjacent Feeding Sites: The Effects of Food Deprivation

ALTHOUGH wintering Black-capped Chickadees (Parus atricapillus) have been studied at feeding sites for some time, our understanding of their winter movements and feeding patterns remains limited and imprecise. The primary purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of depriving each of two adjacent feeding sites successively of all food. Secondly the study tested the conclusions of past research regarding the size and stability of chickadee feeding congregations. Past studies are in agreement that many chickadees remain at a given feeding site for the duration of a winter (Butts 1931, Wallace 1941, Odum 1942). They also find that individuals commonly move from one site to another in the vicinity; three-fourths of a mile is the maximum distance reported. The only previous study of the effects of food deprivation on the movement of a known congregation was conducted by Butts (1931). He found that 11 of 14 chickadees visiting one feeder moved 640 m to another feeder after the original feeding site had been deprived of food for several weeks. The birds did not return to the original feeding site when feeding was resumed, for which a 2-week interruption in feeding at all sites may have been responsible. The results were also complicated by decreased use of feeding sites with the approach of spring.

Observations on Food Habits of Incubating Female Blue Grouse

Few data are available concerning foods eaten by incubating birds. We know of only two such references to tetraonids in North America, each of which deals with observations on use of feeding sites by two birds only (Schladweiler, J. Wildl. Mgmt. 32:426428, 1968; Pendergast and Boag, J. Wildl. Mgmt. 34: 605-611, 1970). Our data too are limited, consisting of crop samples from 19 incubating female Blue Grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) collected on Vancouver Island, British Columbia, in the summer of 1962. Nevertheless, these birds were taken from two structurally different habitats and give some insight into the range of foods acceptable to incubating Blue Grouse over a relatively short distance, the study areas being only 30 airline miles apart. The areas from which our birds were collected are Comox Burn (10 birds), near Courtenay, and Middle Quinsam (9 birds), near Campbell River. Comox Burn was swept by wildfire in September 1961; thus, birds here were collected from an area in the first growing season following burning. New plant growth was mainly from seeds or rootstocks that survived the fire. In contrast, about one-third of Middle Quinsam was burned by wildfire in 1938 and the other two-thirds in 1951. Succession was well advanced by 1962 and structure of the habitat and availability of plants were very different than at Comox Burn (Zwickel and Bendell, Proc. XV Int. Ornithol. Congr., In Press, 1972).