Use Of Family Labor Research Articles

Profitability and implications of cocoa intensification on carbon emissions in Southern Cameroun

The present study evaluated profitability of some models of cocoa farms and analyzed the relationship between cocoa yield, income and carbon stored in traditional cocoa agroforests to discuss implications of cocoa intensification on carbon emissions in Cameroun. Surveys on establishment, management practices and marketing were conducted in 49 cocoa farms along a gradient of population density, forest cover and market access, and combined with data on carbon stock and trees species inventories. Traditional cocoa farms were stratified according to rehabilitation practices of farms (no rehabilitation, replacing dead/senescent cocoa plants in the farm or extending the farm by adding young plants around the old plots). Results showed that traditional cocoa agroforests are managed under high trees shade and present high carbon stock levels (average of 64 trees/ha of large tree diameter and about 94 tonC/ha). Management is based on an intensive use of family labor and there is little consistency in the use of inputs (as planting material, fertilizers and pesticides). Profitability analysis using net present value indicated that farms rehabilitated by replacement of cocoa trees were more profitable. Intensified systems are more profitable at the various discount rates considered, with up to 50 % cocoa yield increase but with less tree shade (about 40 trees/ha). Structural and productive parameters of the system showed a high variability and it was not possible to assess a clear relationship between carbon stock, yield, and incomes to clearly delineate tradeoffs. Under persistent poverty conditions and with no major intervention to support inputs purchase, suitable designs for intensification pathways should focus on good practices such as shade management, quality of associated trees, use of improved planting materials released by the research.

Cropping system diversification, conservation tillage and modern seed adoption in Ethiopia: Impacts on household income, agrochemical use and demand for labor

The type and combination of sustainable agricultural practices (SAPs) adopted have a significant effect on agricultural productivity and food security. This study develops a multinomial endogenous switching regression model of farmers' choice of combination of SAPs and impacts on maize income and agrochemicals and family labor use in rural Ethiopia. Four primary results were found. First, adoption of SAPs increases maize income and the highest payoff is achieved when SAPs are adopted in combination rather than in isolation. Second, nitrogen fertilizer use is lower in the package that contains system diversification and conservation tillage. Third, conservation tillage increased pesticide application and labor demand, perhaps to compensate for reduced tillage. However, when it is used jointly with system diversification, it does not have a significant impact on pesticide and labor use. Fourth, in most cases adoption of a package of SAPs increases women workload, suggesting that agricultural intensification technology interventions may not be gender neutral. This implies that policy makers and other stakeholders promoting a combination of technologies can enhance household food security through increasing income and reducing production costs, but need to be aware of the potential gender related outcomes.

Socio-Economic Status of Smallholder Rubber Farmers in the Moneragala District

This study was focused on the Moneragala district which is one of the districts in the Uva Province of Sri Lanka. Rubber cultivation, being a new initiative there is a high risk of resource wastage in these areas which necessitated a detail study for proper planning of this exercise. Hence, the objective of this study was to assess the socio-economic conditions of rubber farmers which are a basic necessity for planning community development projects. A questionnaire survey was done to collect household and rubber relevant information from 255, 248 and 143 respondents in the respective categories of farmers who are prepared to cultivate rubber (potential farmers) and those who own immature and mature rubber plantations. More than 50% of the farmers had only primary level education. Hence, education needs to be considered as a constraint in improving the awareness of rubber farmers in the nontraditional rubber growing areas. The higher percentage with a monthly income of less than Rs. 10,000 should also be regarded as a bottleneck for the adoption of recommended technologies and proper monitoring methodologies need to be adopted in disbursement of subsidies to minimize resource wastage. Use of family labour for different activities in the category who own immature holdings were 75%. In mature plantations about 65% of the farmers use family labour for activities such as tapping, weeding and fertilizer application. Motorable roads are available to access the homesteads of 86% of the smallholder units. Electricity is available in 56% of the houses and 30% of the smallholders owned vehicles. There is a considerable improvement in the status of rubber farmers who own mature rubber plantations which is a good indication of profitability of rubber. S ocietal involvement by ‘potential’ farmers was 21% and 27% percent of farmers who own immature plantations are members in Thurusaviya. Farmers of mature plantations have taken much interest on the societies as 46% hold memberships. However, experience on rubber cultivation is low as expected calling for efficient extension programmes giving emphasis on poor educational status. Moreover, rigourous monitoring of use of subsidy for rubber farming is vital to minimize resource wastage. Journal of Food and Agriculture 2010 Vol. 03, No. 1 & 2, Page 41-49 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4038/jfa.v3i1-2.5168

Household Work, Labor Time And The Schooling Of Girls In Rural South Asia

This paper uses an applied general equilibrium framework in which family labor use, including the labor of male and female children, is incorporated to examine the effect of income subsidy schemes designed to encourage schooling of children on intra-household resource allocation within rural households in Bangladesh. Various subsidy schemes that are tied to hours of schoolwork by girls or all children are examined under existing preferences and under altered preferences that increase the desire for schooling. The effects of these subsidy schemes are compared to a general income subsidy as well as a scenario where the demand for increased paid domestic work, which often is female child intensive, increases. It is found that household welfare increases most when a subsidy is combined with households altering their preferences by placing greater value on the education of girls. The success of policy experiments that have combined advocacy and educational reform with economic incentives can be explained from this finding.

Transient Health Shocks and Agricultural Labor Demand in Rice-producing Households in Mali

Malaria and other transient illnesses have been recognized as factors constraining economic development in tropical countries. The purpose of this paper is to determine the direct and the indirect impact of transient illness shocks, caused primarily by malaria but also including other tropical illness, on family labor use in irrigated rice production in Mali. Family labor is the most important factor of production used in rice production in Mali and transient illness shocks may negatively impact labor supply, production and hence household welfare derived from agricultural income and consumption. Two labor demand models are estimated to determine whether illness does indeed reduce labor supply: one where the dependent variable only includes family labor and a second that combines family and hired labor. These models can be used to test two sets of hypotheses on the relationship between illness and labor supply. First, we hypothesize that short-term transient illness shocks affect household labor supply implying that intrahousehold coping mechanisms are not wholly effective. Secondly, we hypothesize that hired labor markets are ineffective in mitigating illness shocks. We find that direct and indirect health shocks reduce the effective supply of labor and that neither household nor market supply of labor can effectively mitigate these shocks.

Impact of policies designed to enhance efficiency of water and nutrients on farm households varying in resource endowments in south India

Livelihoods of rice farmers depend on the efficient use of scarcely available agricultural resources. Farmers tend to maximize economic output of farming activities that may not necessarily coincide with the optimal use of resources from an ecological perspective. However, improving resource use efficiencies at the regional level is important for society at large. Efficiencies can be enhanced by well-chosen combinations of resource efficient technologies at the farm level and policy interventions at the regional level, thereby obtaining a balance between the objectives of both farmers and society. Rice-based farms in Tamil Nadu, India, were grouped into four farm types based on their biophysical and socio-economic characteristics. Crop and farm level resource use efficiencies of water, labour, capital and nutrients were quantified on three representative farms per farm type. The four farm types differed in water, labour and nutrient productivity and profitability both at crop and farm level. Water productivity was poor on Farm Types 1, 2 and 3 compared with Farm Type 4 due to the open access to the commonly available canal water on the first types. Labour productivity was highest on Farm Type 2 due to more family labour use and lowest on Farm Type 3 due to the small operational holding. Farm Types 1 and 2 were most profitable and Farm Types 3 and 4 were least profitable – directly related to the resource endowments. Farm Type 3 was least efficient in all the resources considered, emphasizing the negative effect of low resource endowments. Possible policy interventions in order to improve the resource use efficiencies and their effect on the farmer livelihoods are discussed. Government policy interventions may influence the farm resource use efficiencies through the adoption of resource efficient technologies. However, an identical set of policy interventions cannot be applicable to all farm types since current resource use efficiencies and adaptability of these farm types for change in policies differed substantially.

Organic dairy sheep farms in south-central Spain: Typologies according to livestock management and economic variables

Organic dairy sheep farms have been analyzed by multivariate analysis to identify and characterize typological groups in organic dairy sheep systems; with the aim of evaluating their technical and economic performance, and social implications, to propose the corresponding measures of improvement or support. This analysis was conducted on 30 farms in the Spanish region of Castilla-La Mancha, where 164 technical, economic and social variables were analyzed. This analysis allowed the selection of 4 principal components related to size, use of labour, land use, level of supplementation and productive and economic performance. The subsequent cluster analysis classified the farms into three groups. Group I called the Family of Subsistence, has the smallest flocks (24.9LU) with the lowest stocking rate (0.12LU/ha) and the lower productivity of labour per animal (0.72UTA/100 sheep). Group II with larger flocks (138.7LU) is a system semi-intensive commercial, with higher levels of technology and less use of family labour (51.9%). Group III consists of family farms with a commercial profile, medium-sized flocks (72.6LU), which has the best performance in terms of global sustainability, given the ability of farmers in organic productions with competitive vision.These systems show notable technical weaknesses due to the lack of agriculture and livestock integration; besides, the high stocking rates exceed carrying capacities and lead to an increased of supplementary feed and, consequently, of feeding cost. Hence the studied farms have a high cost of production and low profitability. As a result of this, the continuity of Groups I and II depends on a profitable result, enough to support the family economy, and is dependent on subsidies.

Integrating crops and livestock in subtropical agricultural systems

As the demand for livestock products increases, and is expected to continue to increase over the next few decades, especially in developing countries, smallholder mixed systems are becoming more intensive. However, with limited land and water resources and concern about the environmental impact of agricultural practices and climate change, the challenge is to find ways of increasing productivity that do not compromise household food security, but rather increase incomes equitably and sustain or enhance the natural resource base. In developed countries there has been increased specialisation of crop and livestock production. In contrast, the majority of livestock in developing countries is kept in mixed crop/livestock systems. Crops (cereal grains and pulses) and crop residues provide the basis of the diet for animals, e.g. cereal straw fed to dairy cattle or sweet potato vines fed to pigs. Animal manure can provide significant nutrient inputs to crops. Water productivity is higher in mixed crop/livestock systems compared with growing crops alone. Mixed systems allow for a more flexible and profitable use of family labour where employment opportunities are limited. They also spread risks across several enterprises, a consideration in smallholder systems that may become even more important under certain climate change scenarios. Integrated crop/livestock systems can play a significant role in improving global food security but will require appropriate technological developments, institutional arrangements and supportive policy environments if they are to fulfil that potential in the coming decades.

Technical inefficiency and its determinants in food crops production in Imor State, Nigeria

Technical inefficiency among food crops farmers in Imo State was estimated using stochastic translog production frontier. The mean output of food crops farmers was 20.3 tons/ha, which is 9.6 tons/ha less than the expected food crops output of 30 tons/ha, and the mean level of technical inefficiency was 61.5 percent with a wide range from 21.24 – 98.13 percent. Major determinants of technical inefficiency were education, household size, farm size, access to credit, extension contact, farming experience and family labour use. There are still opportunities for increasing technical efficiency, productivity and farm income in food crops production in Imo state if these factors and given the desired attention.

Changing Patterns in Family Farming: The Case of the Pampa Region, Argentina

In the past few decades, Argentine agriculture has been significantly reorganized. Changes include the marked growth of export production, the need for an increasing level of capital investment and technological incorporation into farms and the restructuring of public intervention. This paper examines the dynamics of farm exit and the adjustments made by capitalized family farmers in the Pampa region. We suggest transformations in family farms are the result of a substantial shift in their main characteristics which historically combined the use of family labour, a certain accumulation capacity and ownership status. In particular, we will discuss the different and changing patterns of farm operations and the adjustments made with respect to work and land tenure.

Is off‐farm income reforming the farm? Evidence from Mexico

AbstractDoes access to off‐farm income complement or compete with agricultural production? This article explores the effect of off‐farm income on agricultural production activities, using data from the 2003 Mexico National Rural Household Survey. We first discuss the theoretical conditions under which access to off‐farm income may influence production in an agricultural household model. Instrumental‐variable (IV) estimation methods are then used to test whether agricultural production activities, technologies, and input use differ between households with and without access to off‐farm income. We find that off‐farm income has a negative effect on agricultural output and the use of family labor on the farm, but a positive impact on the demand for purchased inputs. There is also a slight efficiency gain in households with access to off‐farm income. Findings offer insights into how household production evolves as rural households increasingly engage in off‐farm income activities.

Firm Efficiency in a Transitional Economy: Evidence from Vietnam

The paper examines efficiency performance of the non‐state small and medium manufacturing industries in a transitional and developing economy. Using firm level data in Vietnam from 1996 and 2001, cross‐sectional models are estimated using the stochastic frontier method. The results show a considerable variation in efficiency levels among firms and that a greater use of family labor and a metropolitan location are associated with improvement in technical efficiency. The results indicate few benefits from direct government financial and non‐financial assistance to businesses.

Analysis of the adoption of soil conservation practices in olive groves: the case of mountainous areas in Southern Spain

This paper presents some results from a survey carried out in 2004 among 223 olive tree farmers from mountainous areas in the Spanish Southern provinces of Granada and Jaén regarding the adoption of soil conservation and management practices. Olive tree groves in mountainous areas are subject to a high risk of soil erosion and incur a higher cost of soil conservation. This results in greater difficulty to comply with the requirements of the new single payment scheme (cross-compliance) and to benefit from agri-environmental schemes. The main objectives of this study are to analyze the current adoption level of soil conservation practices in this area and to address which socioeconomic and institutional factors determine such adoption. Three probit models are estimated. Dependent variables are three different soil conservation practices, namely tillage following contour lines, maintenance of terraces with stonewalls, and non-tillage with weedicides. Results show a significant increase in the adoption of several soil conservation measures in the last 15 years, especially of non-tillage practices. Some factors positively related with the adoption of soil conservation practices are farm profitability, the presence of young farmers, and continuity of the farming activity by relatives and the use of family labour.

Estimating cost inefficiency of food crops farmers in Imo state, Nigeria

This study used survey data on input costs and total cost of production by 90 proportionate randomly selected food crops farmers in Imo state, to measure farm level cost inefficiency using a behavioural approach. The farmers were cost inefficient. The mean level cost inefficiency was 0.59, and the level ranged from 0.91 – 0.44 by individual farms. Major determinants of cost-inefficiency were education, farm size, family labour use, extension and credit. Food crops production costs can still be reduced in Imo State through increased efficiency in input markets, price legislation and provision of subsidy. br> Journal of Agriculture, Forestry and the Social Sciences Vol. 3 (2) 2005: pp.24-31

The economics of land fragmentation in the north of Vietnam*

Land fragmentation, where a single farm has a number of parcels of land, is a common feature of agriculture in many countries, especially in developing countries. In Vietnam, land fragmentation is common, especially in the north. For the whole country, there are about 75 million parcels of land, an average of seven to eight plots per farm household. Such fragmentation can be seen to have negative and positive benefits for farm households and the community generally. Comparative statics analysis and analysis of survey data have led to the conclusion that small‐sized farms are likely to be more fragmented, and that fragmentation had a negative impact on crop productivity and increased family labour use and other money expenses. Policies which allow the appropriate opportunity cost of labour to be reflected at the farm level may provide appropriate incentives to trigger farm size change and land consolidation. Policies which tip the benefits in favour of fewer and larger plots, such as strong and effective research and development, an active extension system and strong administrative management, may also lead to land consolidation.

Profit inefficiency and its determinants among yam producers in Imo State, Nigeria

Farm profit inefficiency in yam production in Imo State, Nigeria was estimated using stochastic translog profit frontier model. The mean output of yam producers was 10.3tons/ha, while the mean level of profit inefficiency was 63.7 percent with a wide range of 23.41 – 94.23 percent. Mean loss of profit was N76061 per hectare. Major determinants of profit inefficiency were farm size, access to credit, education, family labour use, extension contact and farming experience. Opportunities still exist to reduce profit loss and inefficiency in yam production in the study area if these factors are given the desired attention. International Journal of Agriculture and Rural Development Vol. 7(2) 2006: 67-73

Some Factors Affecting Reproductive Success in Crossbred Dairy Cows on Smallholder Farms in Coastal North-East Tanzania

A 2-year longitudinal survey was carried out to investigate factors affecting reproduction in crossbred cows on smallholder farms in and around an urban centre. Sixty farms were visited at approximately 2-week intervals and details of reproductive traits and body condition score (BCS) were collected. Fifteen farms were within the town (U), 23 farms were approximately 5 km from town (SU). and 22 farms approximately 10 km from town (PU). Sources of variation in reproductive traits were investigated using a general linear model (GLM) by a stepwise forward selection and backward elimination approach to judge important independent variables. Factors considered for the first step of formulation of the model included location (PU, SU and U), type of insemination, calving season, BCS at calving, at 3 months postpartum and at 6 months postpartum, calving year, herd size category, source of labour (hired and family labour), calf rearing method (bucket and partial suckling) and parity number of the cow. The effects of the independent variables identified were then investigated using a non-parametric survival technique. The number of days to first oestrus was increased on the U site (p = 0.045) and when family labour was used (p = 0.02). The non-parametric test confirmed the effect of site (p = 0.059), but effect of labour was not significant. The number of days from calving to conception was reduced by hiring labour (p = 0.003) and using natural service (p = 0.028). The non-parametric test confirmed the effects of type of insemination (p = 0.0001) while also identifying extended calving intervals on U and SU sites (p = 0.014). Labour source was again non-significant. Calving interval was prolonged on U and SU sites (p = 0.021), by the use of AI (p = 0.031) and by the use of family labour (p = 0.001). The nonparametric test confirmed the effect of site (p = 0.008) and insemination type (p > 0.0001) but not of labour source. It was concluded that under favourable conditions (PU site, hired labour and natural service) calving intervals of around 440 days could be achieved.

Social and human capital in immigrant adaptation:: The case of Canadian business immigrants

Purpose: With the resurgence of immigration to North America in the past three decades, research on immigrant adaptation and the attendant issues of assimilation has burgeoned. A prevailing assumption of much of this research is that social capital is a vital resource enabling immigrants to find their economic and social niches in the host society. In a word, social capital is a key factor in the immigrant adaptation process. This assumption has been especially prominent in research focusing on one specific subset of immigrants: entrepreneurs. Social capital in the form of ethnic networks and family ties is assumed to function critically in the establishment and operation of immigrant-owned businesses. This paper argues that although the formation and expenditure of social capital may typify the experiences of many or even most immigrant entrepreneurs, some enter the host society with sufficient human and/or financial capital that enables them to forego the utilization of social capital in the adaptation process. Methods: To demonstrate, I draw upon in-depth interviews conducted with 70 immigrant entrepreneurs in the province of Ontario, Canada between 1993 and 1995. All interviewees entered Canada under the auspices of the Canadian Business Immigration Program, a federal program designed to attract immigrants with demonstrable business and managerial skills that presumably will lead to the establishment of a firm and thus to the subsequent creation of jobs and economic activity. A formal requirement of their entrance, then, is the possession of proven business skills, a critical form of human capital that facilitates successful economic adaptation in the host society. Forms of social capital are described and their applicability to the adaptation experiences of the interviewees is analyzed. What is found among these business immigrants is a minimal reliance on social capital in establishing and operating their firms. In securing investment capital, finding a work force, and acquiring information, ethnic and family ties, the most common forms of social capital for immigrants generally and for immigrant entrepreneurs in particular, do not play a major role. Solidarity with co-ethnics and the use of family labor, so common among conventional immigrant entrepreneurs, are not of significant import in the economic adaptation of these business immigrants. Moreover, ties to coethnics are only minimally significant in patterns of social adaptation as well. Results: It is concluded that immigrants entering the host society with pre-migration intentions of business ownership possess sufficient human capital that enables them to disregard the formation and utilization of social capital in their economic and social adaptation. In this they differ from immigrants who take a more conventional path to business ownership, that is, laboring in the mainstream work force following entrance into the host society and gradually accumulating resources that lead to entrepreneurship. For business immigrants with children, however, social capital does play a key role in the decision to immigrate. Business immigrants are prepared to abandon successful firms in the origin society in order to provide their children with a more promising socioeconomic environment, including above all what is viewed as superior opportunities for education. Hence, the social capital that inheres in close-knit family arrangements provides incentive for parents to accept losses in financial capital in order to increase their children’s human capital. Conclusion: The context of the receiving society may also be seen as a form of social capital for Canadian business immigrants. All declare that quality of life, rather than the lure of financial success, serves as their major incentive to immigrate to Canada. Moreover, the fact that they enter a society that officially proclaims its multicultural character offers them the opportunity to become Canadian but to retain their ethnicity. The source of social capital in this case, then, is not the ethnic community, but the broader society.

Size of investment, opportunity choice and human resources in new venture growth: Some typologies

A diversity of factors encompass entrepreneurship phenomena. An overview of theory and research in the field shows that entrepreneurship covers (1) number of start-up firms, (2) growth of the firm, (3) growth of the industrial economy, (4) individual mobility, and (5) social transformation. This paper tries to advance, through a partially developed formal model, an integration of some of the important aspects of entrepreneurship. Based on nearly 50 case studies carried out in the course of field work over North India, it examines the interplay of resources, opportunities and capabilities in new venture growth. The findings suggest that resource access may itself limit the range of opportunity choice and growth potential. Within these limits, managerial capability, as related to human resources in particular, could be more significant than hitherto recognized. A preliminary effort is made to develop a typology of firms based on the varying proportion of factors influencing growth of a venture. Further, a model of entrepreneurial firm stabilization and human resources is outlined. A path-based typology of new venture growth and human resource management is described. These include the use of family labor or supervisory resources, an empathetic leadership style and the presence of entrepreneurial teams. The findings in this paper result from a project to document profiles of entrepreneurs who have emerged through interactions with support systems, including entrepreneurship and small business development training programs in India. The states were divided into categories based on per-capita income and level of industrial development or backwardness. A judicious mix of purposive and random selection of cases was used. Criterion for selection included “extent of break from the past,” that is, non-business social origin of the entrepreneur and high-growth rate of the firm. Locationally, cases in a particular state have been selected from a) major urban center, b) smaller, more interior center, and c) small, remote center. The argument for small new ventures in developing countries lies in their positive employment and income generating effects. The claim rests on the presumed better efficiency of factor use in small enterprises—(surplus) labor in particular. Since the 1970s and the 1980s in the developed countries, too, new firms are acknowledged as being vital to an economy. The outlook for an individual new firm, however, can vary. High rates of sickness and mortality are also widely reported. Small firm start-ups are thought to play a role in widening the entrepreneurial base of a given society. It is an important expression of social mobility, as well as structural change, in a developing country context. At the micro-enterprise level, limited resources can restrict choice of opportunity to low growth ones. These represent a bad business idea, subsidized by family resources, including labor—the true self-employment cases. There could be a middle `growth zone’ where higher investment size widens opportunity choice. This slab represents the seedbed for firms with high-growth potential and merits the focus of policy makers, promotional agencies and advisory services. The strategic behavior of these firms can provide valuable insights into how `sweat equity’ is generated in growth ventures. There is a significantly sharp decrease in the number of firms in the third or highest, investment slab, approaching medium size. At this level, the size of the margin money required from the potential entrepreneur would limit the number of new entrants and their catchment sources. From a social transformation point of view, this may not be the desirable outcome. In the absence of developed markets for venture capital, this would render weak, the case for complete withdrawal of countervailing state assistance in industrially backward or depressed regions, which would favor those already advantaged.

Differentiation among the urban poor and the reproduction of poverty: the case of Nanjido

This paper describes the internal differentiation within a low income community living on a garbage dump in Seoul. This includes the differences in work within the garbage dump in terms of work undertaken and income. Differences in level of education, expenditure and use of family labour are also explored, as are the different survival strategies adopted by households. The paper also considers why it is so difficult for the inhabitants to escape from poverty and the mechanisms which ensure that poverty is reproduced.