Use Of Eye Movements Research Articles

Infants’ use of eye movements to explore their natural environment

Infants’ use of eye movements to explore their natural environment

Exploring Gender Differences in Computational Thinking Learning in a VR Classroom: Developing Machine Learning Models Using Eye-Tracking Data and Explaining the Models

Understanding existing gender differences in the development of computational thinking skills is increasingly important for gaining valuable insights into bridging the gender gap. However, there are few studies to date that have examined gender differences based on the learning process in a realistic classroom context. In this work, we aim to investigate gender classification using students’ eye movements that reflect temporal human behavior during a computational thinking lesson in an immersive VR classroom. We trained several machine learning classifiers and showed that students’ eye movements provide discriminative information for gender classification. In addition, we employed a Shapley additive explanation (SHAP) approach for feature selection and further model interpretation. The classification model trained with the selected (best) eye movement feature set using SHAP achieved improved performance with an average accuracy of over 70%\\documentclass[12pt]{minimal} \\usepackage{amsmath} \\usepackage{wasysym} \\usepackage{amsfonts} \\usepackage{amssymb} \\usepackage{amsbsy} \\usepackage{mathrsfs} \\usepackage{upgreek} \\setlength{\\oddsidemargin}{-69pt} \\begin{document}$$70\\%$$\\end{document}. The SHAP values further explained the classification model by identifying important features and their impacts on the model output, namely gender. Our findings provide insights into the use of eye movements for in-depth investigations of gender differences in learning activities in VR classroom setups that are ecologically valid and may provide clues for providing personalized learning support and tutoring in such educational systems or optimizing system design.

On the Use of Eye Movements in Symptom Validity Assessment of Feigned Schizophrenia

Assessing the credibility of reported mental health problems is critical in a variety of assessment situations, particularly in forensic contexts. Previous research has examined how the assessment of performance validity can be improved through the use of bio-behavioral measures (e.g., eye movements). To date, however, there is a paucity of literature on the use of eye tracking technology in assessing the validity of presented symptoms of schizophrenia, a disorder that is known to be associated with oculomotor abnormalities. Thus, we collected eye tracking data from 83 healthy individuals during the completion of the Inventory of Problems – 29 and investigated whether the oculomotor behavior of participants instructed to feign schizophrenia would differ from those of control participants asked to respond honestly. Results showed that feigners had a longer dwell time and a greater number of fixations in the feigning-keyed response options, regardless of whether they eventually endorsed those options (d > 0.80). Implications on how eye tracking technology can deepen comprehension on simulation strategies are discussed, as well as the potential of investigating eye movements to advance the field of symptom validity assessment.

Object Selection as a Biometric.

The use of eye movement as a biometric is a new biometric technology that is now in competition with many other technologies such as the fingerprint, face recognition, ear recognition and many others. Problems encountered with these authentication methods such as passwords and tokens have led to the emergence of biometric authentication techniques. Biometric authentication involves the use of physical or behavioral characteristics to identify people. In biometric authentication, feature extraction is a very vital stage, although some of the extracted features that are not very useful may lead to the degradation of the biometric system performance. Object selection using eye movement as a technique for biometric authentication was proposed for this study. To achieve this, an experiment for collecting eye movement data for biometric purposes was conducted. Eye movement data were measured from twenty participants during choosing and finding of still objects. The eye-tracking equipment used was able to measure eye-movement data. The model proposed in this paper aimed to create a template from these observations that tried to assign a unique binary signature for each enrolled user. Error correction is used in authenticating a user who submits an eye movement sample for enrollment. The XORed Biometric template is further secured by multiplication with an identity matrix of size (n × n). These results show positive feedback on this model as individuals can be uniquely identified by their eye movement features. The use of hamming distance as additional verification helper increased model performance significantly. The proposed scheme has a 37% FRR and a 27% FAR based on the 400 trials, which are very promising results for future improvements.

Functional Use of Eye Movements for an Acting System.

Movements of the eyes assist vision and support hand and body movements in a cooperative way. Despite their strong functional coupling, different types of movements are usually studied independently. We integrate knowledge from behavioral, neurophysiological, and clinical studies on how eye movements are coordinated with goal-directed hand movements and how they facilitate motor learning. Understanding the coordinated control of eye and hand movements can provide important insights into brain functions that are essential for performing or learning daily tasks in health and disease. This knowledge can also inform applications such as robotic manipulation and clinical rehabilitation.

Eye tracking data analytics in virtual reality training: Application in Deepwater Horizon oil drilling operation

Virtual reality (VR) enable us to train in a safe environment using computer-generated simulations. One such simulated environment is the Deepwater Horizon operation, and VR enables us to evaluate trainees’ and operators’ situation awareness (SA) in a non-hazardous environment. One unobtrusive and viable SA evaluation method might be the use of eye movements, specifically the time-ordered visual scan paths. In this research, we investigated how SA can be associated with visual scan paths in an anomaly detection task within the oil drilling rig virtual reality simulator. The results show that the trainees having lower SA tended to create random visual scan paths whereas the trainees having higher SA tended to create concentrated and refined visual scan paths. The results show promise in developing timely intervention methods through analyzing the visual scan path characteristics of the trainees.

Eye movements in demyelinating, autoimmune and metabolic disorders.

In the last three decades, the use of eye movements and vestibular testing in many neurological disorders has accelerated, primarily because of practical technologic developments. Although the acute vestibular syndrome is a prime example of this progress, more chronic neurologic and systemic disorders have received less attention. We focus here on recent contributions relating vestibular and ocular motor abnormalities in inflammatory, demyelinating, metabolic, and peripheral nervous system disorders RECENT FINDINGS: Vestibular abnormalities have been identified in acute demyelinating neuropathies (AIDP), in novel genetic mutations responsible for CANVAS (cerebellar ataxia, neuropathy vestibular areflexia syndrome), and in other inherited neuropathies (variants of Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease). In addition, there are differentiating characteristics between the most common CNS demyelinating disorders: multiple sclerosis and neuromyelitis optica (NMO). We summarize new information on Vitamin D metabolism in benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV), followed by a brief review of the vestibular and ocular motor findings in Wernicke's encephalopathy. We conclude with findings in several paraneoplastic/autoimmune disorders. This literature review highlights the impact of a careful vestibular and ocular motor evaluation in common neurologic disorder, not only for the initial diagnosis but also for monitoring disease and rehabilitation. A careful examination of eye movements and vestibular function, supplemented with new video techniques to quantify the findings, should be part of the standard neurologic examination.

A TALE OF TWO CASE STUDIES: ACCELERATED RESOLUTION THERAPY FOR COMPLICATED GRIEF IN OLDER ADULTS

Complicated grief (CG) is characterized by lengthy, intense, and functionally impairing grief which disproportionately affects older adults. Accelerated Resolution Therapy (ART) is a brief, protocol driven, exposure/imagery rescripting therapy which uses lateral left-right eye movements. ART, unlike traditional psychotherapy, directs the person to perform two tasks simultaneously (e.g. re-experiencing the grief experience and performing eye movements), taxing limited working memory capacity. Importantly, this may force memory traces representing events, emotions, and sensations to compete for permanence, as well as reduce the vividness and emotional intensity of the original grief. Two CG case studies are presented (expected; unexpected death) with their response to ART. Stake’s instrumental case study methodology was used to identify and study cases which reflect a range of CG. Additionally, CG was measured by the Inventory of Complicated Grief (ICF). ICF’s range is 0-76 with scores > 24 indicating CG. Case 1 was a spousal caregiver with a single, expected death where helplessness, guilt, shame, and a life alone had resulted in CG (baseline ICF 33). Her ICF at 8 weeks post-ART was 10. Case 2 was an adult child caregiver with multiple (parent, sibling), unexpected deaths in quick succession where loss, guilt, anger, and helplessness had resulted in CG (baseline ICF 25). Her ICF at 8 weeks post-ART was 9. Both participants were able to process the distressing sensations that emerged during the imaginal exposure component facilitated with the use of eye movements. This suggests that ART may be a powerful new mind-body treatment for CG.

Classifying Individuals with ASD Through Facial Emotion Recognition and Eye-Tracking.

Individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) have been shown to have atypical scanning patterns during face and emotion perception. While previous studies characterized ASD using eye-tracking data, this study examined whether the use of eye movements combined with task performance in facial emotion recognition could be helpful to identify individuals with ASD. We tested 23 subjects with ASD and 35 controls using a Dynamic Affect Recognition Evaluation (DARE) task that requires an individual to recognize one of six emotions (i.e., anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise) while observing a slowly transitioning face video. We observed differences in response time and eye movements, but not in the recognition accuracy. Based on these observations, we proposed a machine learning method to distinguish between individuals with ASD and typically developing (TD) controls. The proposed method classifies eye fixations based on a comprehensive set of features that integrate task performance, gaze information, and face features extracted using a deep neural network. It achieved an 86% classification accuracy that is comparable with the standardized diagnostic scales, with advantages of efficiency and objectiveness. Feature visualization and interpretations were further carried out to reveal distinguishing features between the two subject groups and to understand the social and attentional deficits in ASD.

The Changing Landscape: High-Level Influences on Eye Movement Guidance in Scenes.

The use of eye movements to explore scene processing has exploded over the last decade. Eye movements provide distinct advantages when examining scene processing because they are both fast and spatially measurable. By using eye movements, researchers have investigated many questions about scene processing. Our review will focus on research performed in the last decade examining: (1) attention and eye movements; (2) where you look; (3) influence of task; (4) memory and scene representations; and (5) dynamic scenes and eye movements. Although typically addressed as separate issues, we argue that these distinctions are now holding back research progress. Instead, it is time to examine the intersections of these seemingly separate influences and examine the intersectionality of how these influences interact to more completely understand what eye movements can tell us about scene processing.

The Hippocampus Promotes Effective Saccadic Information Gathering in Humans.

It is well established that the hippocampus is critical for memory. Recent evidence suggests that one function of hippocampal memory processing is to optimize how people actively explore the world. Here we demonstrate that the link between the hippocampus and exploration extends even to the moment-to-moment use of eye movements during visuospatial memory encoding. In Experiment 1, we examined relationships between study-phase eye movements in healthy individuals and subsequent performance on a spatial reconstruction test. In addition to quantitative measures of viewing behaviors (e.g., how many fixations or saccades were deployed during study), we used the information-theoretic measure of entropy to assess the amount of randomness or disorganization in participants' scanning behaviors. We found that the use of scanpaths during study that were lower in entropy (e.g., more organized, less random) predicted more accurate spatial reconstruction both within and between participants. Scanpath entropy was a better predictor of reconstruction accuracy than were the quantitative measures of viewing. In Experiment 2, we found that individuals with hippocampal amnesia tended to engage in viewing patterns that were higher in entropy (less organized) relative to healthy comparisons. These findings reveal a critical role of the hippocampus in guiding eye movement exploration to optimize visuospatial relational memory.

Selection of procedures in mental subtraction: Use of eye movements as a window on arithmetic processing.

Adults who use mental procedures other than direct retrieval to solve simple arithmetic problems typically make more errors and respond more slowly than individuals who rely on retrieval. The present study examined how this extra time was distributed across problem components when adults (n = 40) solved small (e.g., 5 - 2) and large (e.g., 17 - 9) subtraction problems. Two performance groups (i.e., retrievers and procedure users) were created based on a 2-group cluster analysis using statistics derived from the ex-Gaussian model of reaction time (RT) distributions (i.e., μ and τ) for both small and large problems. Cluster results differentiated individuals based on the frequency with which they used retrieval versus procedural strategies, supporting the view that differences in mu and tau reflected differences in choice of strategies used. Patterns of eye movements over time were also dramatically different across clusters, and provide strong support for the view that individuals were using different mental procedures to solve these problems. We conclude that eye-movement patterns can be used to distinguish fluent individuals who readily use retrieval from those who rely more on procedural strategies, even if traditional self-report methods are unavailable. (PsycINFO Database Record

Tracking the truth: the effect of face familiarity on eye fixations during deception.

In forensic investigations, suspects sometimes conceal recognition of a familiar person to protect co-conspirators or hide knowledge of a victim. The current experiment sought to determine whether eye fixations could be used to identify memory of known persons when lying about recognition of faces. Participants' eye movements were monitored whilst they lied and told the truth about recognition of faces that varied in familiarity (newly learned, famous celebrities, personally known). Memory detection by eye movements during recognition of personally familiar and famous celebrity faces was negligibly affected by lying, thereby demonstrating that detection of memory during lies is influenced by the prior learning of the face. By contrast, eye movements did not reveal lies robustly for newly learned faces. These findings support the use of eye movements as markers of memory during concealed recognition but also suggest caution when familiarity is only a consequence of one brief exposure.

Action perception as hypothesis testing

We present a novel computational model that describes action perception as an active inferential process that combines motor prediction (the reuse of our own motor system to predict perceived movements) and hypothesis testing (the use of eye movements to disambiguate amongst hypotheses). The system uses a generative model of how (arm and hand) actions are performed to generate hypothesis-specific visual predictions, and directs saccades to the most informative places of the visual scene to test these predictions – and underlying hypotheses. We test the model using eye movement data from a human action observation study. In both the human study and our model, saccades are proactive whenever context affords accurate action prediction; but uncertainty induces a more reactive gaze strategy, via tracking the observed movements. Our model offers a novel perspective on action observation that highlights its active nature based on prediction dynamics and hypothesis testing.

Beyond Traditional Clinical Measurements for Screening Fears and Phobias

The use of eye movements is a usual method of measuring attentional and emotional response in laboratory. However, when it comes to clinical practice, it is seldom applied. Two studies were conducted to examine whether extraocular and intraocular movements can be used as indices of attentional bias and autonomic activation. In the first study, a free-viewing task, combined with subliminal exposure, showed that high-fear individuals tend to orient more their attention toward the visual space where threat-stimuli (snakes) were presented. The findings suggest a reflexive overt attentional orienting bias for subliminal snakes in comparison with subliminal control stimuli. The differentiation between participants with high and low fear of snakes suggested that a disposition to fear snakes affects the initial ocular saccades. In the second study, participants were instructed to discriminate a sign that was randomly displayed at the center of the display while subliminal images were peripherally presented. The results revealed larger pupil dilation for threatening stimuli subliminally presented; again, high-fear individuals showed larger pupillary dilations, independently of the stimulus category. Our results are in line with the assumption that a predisposition to fear is relevant for extraocular and intraocular movements when exposed to threat stimuli. These findings suggest that eye measurements, combined with subliminal exposure techniques, could be a reliable and nonintrusive aid tool to be used for the assessment and treatment of fear and phobias.

Detecting expert’s eye using a multiple-kernel Relevance Vector Machine

Decoding mental states from the pattern of neural activity or overt behavior is an intensely pursued goal. Here we applied machine learning to detect expertise from the oculomotor behavior of novice and expert billiard players during free viewing of a filmed billiard match with no specific task, and in a dynamic trajectory prediction task involving ad-hoc, occluded billiard shots. We have adopted a ground framework for feature space fusion and a Bayesian sparse classifier, namely, a Relevance Vector Machine. By testing different combinations of simple oculomotor features (gaze shifts amplitude and direction, and fixation duration), we could classify on an individual basis which group - novice or expert - the observers belonged to with an accuracy of 82% and 87%, respectively for the match and the shots. These results provide evidence that, at least in the particular domain of billiard sport, a signature of expertise is hidden in very basic aspects of oculomotor behavior, and that expertise can be detected at the individual level both with ad-hoc testing conditions and under naturalistic conditions - and suitable data mining. Our procedure paves the way for the development of a test for the “expert’s eye”, and promotes the use of eye movements as an additional signal source in Brain-Computer-Interface (BCI) systems.

Brief treatment of co-occurring post-traumatic stress and depressive symptoms by use of accelerated resolution therapy(®).

This uncontrolled prospective cohort study evaluated the use of accelerated resolution therapy (ART) for treatment of comorbid symptoms of post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and major depressive disorder. Twenty-eight adult subjects, mean age of 41 years (79% female, 36% Hispanic), received a mean of 3.7 ± 1.1 ART treatment sessions (range 1–5). ART is a new exposure-based psychotherapy that makes use of eye movements. Subjects completed a range of self-report psychological measures before and after treatment with ART including the 17-item PCL-C checklist (symptoms of PTSD) and 20-item Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D). For the PCL-C, the pre-ART mean (±standard deviation) was 62.5 (8.8) with mean reductions of −29.6 (12.5), −30.1 (13.1), and −31.4 (14.04) at post-ART, 2-month, and 4-month follow-up, respectively (p < 0.0001 for comparisons to pre-ART score). Compared to pre-ART status, this corresponded to standardized effect sizes of 2.37, 2.30, and 3.01, respectively. For the CES-D, the pre-ART mean was 35.1 (8.8) with mean reductions of −20.6 (11.0), −18.1 (11.5), and −15.6 (14.4) at post-ART, 2-month, and 4-month follow-up, respectively (p ≤ 0.0001 compared to Pre-ART score). This corresponded to standardized effect sizes of 1.88, 1.58, and 1.09, respectively. Strong correlations were observed at 2-month and 4-month follow-up for post-treatment changes in PTSD and depression symptom scores (r = 0.79, r = 0.76, respectively, p ≤ 0.0002). No serious treatment-related adverse effects were reported. In summary, ART appears to be a promising brief, safe, and effective treatment for adults with clinically significant comorbid symptoms of PTSD and depression. Future controlled and mechanistic studies with this emerging therapy are warranted, particularly given its short treatment duration, and in light of current heightened emphasis on health care cost constraints.

Brief Treatment of Symptoms of Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) by Use of Accelerated Resolution Therapy (ART(®)).

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) is a prevalent, disabling anxiety disorder. This prospective cohort study reports on a new exposure-based therapy known as Accelerated Resolution Therapy (ART®) that incorporates the use of eye movements administered in a brief treatment period (1–5 one-hour sessions within three weeks). Eighty adults aged 21–60 years with symptoms of PTSD were recruited from the Tampa Bay area. The ART-based psychotherapy was designed to minimize anxiety and body sensations associated with recall of traumatic memories and to replace distressing images with favorable ones. Participants’ mean age was 40 years, 77% were female, and 29% were Hispanic. Participants underwent a median of three ART sessions, 66 of 80 (82.5%) completed treatment, and 54 of 66 (81.8%) provided 2-month follow-up data. Mean scores pre- and post-ART and at 2-month follow-up were: PTSD Checklist: 54.5 ± 12.2 vs. 31.2 ± 11.4 vs. 30.0 ± 12.4; Brief Symptom Inventory: 30.8 ± 14.6 vs. 10.1 ± 10.8 vs. 10.1 ± 12.1; Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale: 29.5 ± 10.9 vs. 11.8 ± 11.1 vs. 13.5 ± 12.1; Trauma Related Growth Inventory-Distress scale: 18.9 ± 4.1 vs. 7.4 ± 5.9 vs. 8.2 ± 5.9 (p < 0.0001 for all pre-ART vs. post-ART and 2-month comparisons). No serious adverse events were reported. ART appears to be a brief, safe, and effective treatment for symptoms of PTSD.

Here’s Looking at You

This study represents the beginning of a systematic effort to utilize eye-movement responses in order to better understand individuals’ processing strategies during the Rorschach Inkblot Method (RIM). Eye movements reflect moment-by-moment spatial and temporal processing of visual information and represent a useful approach for studying the RIM with potential clinical implications. Thirteen participants responded to the Rorschach while eye movements were being monitored. Several eye-movement indices were studied which reflect different aspects of information processing. Differences among the Rorschach cards were found for several eye-movement indices. For example, fixation durations were longer during a second viewing of the cards than during the first. This is consonant with an attempt to acquire conceptually difficult information, as participants were reinterpreting the cards. Results are discussed in terms of visual information processing strategies during the RIM and the potential usefulness of eye movements as a response measure to the RIM.

Stop the Use of Eye Movements in Resource Development and Installation, Until Their Additional Value Has Been Proven: A Rejoinder to

This brief article responds to Leeds and Korn’s (2012) commentary on our article (Hornsveld et al., 2011) in which we found that eye movements (EMs) during recall of positive and resourceful autobiographic memories (such as those used in resource development and installation [RDI]) led to decreases of (a) vividness, (b) pleasantness, and (c) experienced strength of the intended quality or resource. Hence, we found an opposite effect than what was intended and critically discussed this in our article. In their comments, Leeds and Korn stress their positive clinical experience with RDI and emphasize the limitations of our study. Here we argue that our results, despite their limitations, are fully in line with mounting evidence supporting a working memory account for EMs. Moreover, opposite effects for EMs in the RDI and the safe place procedure accord with several other clinical observations. Given the absence of any confirmatory results, we again advocate, and now even more strongly, to stop the use of EMs in the RDI and safe place procedures until their additional value has been proven.