Use Of Expenditure Research Articles

Innovative Activity of the Service Sector of the EU Member States

Expenditures on innovative activities, including R&D, play a key role in introducing innovations and consequently in the level of innovativeness. The aim of the research was to assess the level of innovative activity in the service sector in the Member States of the European Union (EU), in terms of incurred expenditure and achieved effects. To achieve the given aim various methods were used, including: monographic method, analysis and criticism of the literature, index and statistical analyses. The implementation of the assumed goal was carried out on the basis of two groups of indicators — effects and expenditure incurred on innovative activities. The research procedure was carried out in three stages: detailed assessment of the indicators, identification of similarities within the studied countries and determination of correlations occurring in them, and assessment of the synthetic Perkal’s indicator regarding outlays and effects. The results of the research provided information on the level of the use of inputs in relation to the effects in the service sector of individual EU countries. Countries ranked high in the innovativeness ranking (Denmark, France) are characterized by higher outlays and the effects achieved as a result of them, as well as show favorable or neutral relations between them. A high level of effects in relation to the expenditure was also observed in Malta, Spain, and Croatia. The results of the research constitute valuable information on the effectiveness of the use of expenditure on innovative activities, especially significant from the point of view of service entities from countries with a low level of innovative activity. These enterprises should draw on good practices and experience and even try to cooperate in the creation of innovations with companies from countries with a high level of innovative activity. Consequently, such practices will contribute to a more dynamic and sustainable development of innovativeness in the service sector of all EU.

3 Assessing inequality using labour income

This chapter focuses on the implications for inequality of recent ILO estimates of the labour income share and distribution. Using household surveys for 95 countries, mainly from the ILO Harmonized Microdata collection, we estimate the labour income of the self‐employed to produce an internationally comparable labour income share dataset. Furthermore, we use the same methodology to obtain the first‐ever estimates of the labour income distribution. The labour income distribution estimates complement the two main data sources used until now to study inequality: expenditure distribution and total income distribution. Crucially, labour income distribution data have a reasonable coverage for all country income groups, unlike other data sources that are characterized by undercoverage for either lower‐income countries (regarding data on total income) or higher‐income countries (regarding data on expenditure).The estimates show that the global labour income share declined substantially between 2004 and 2017. In high‐income countries, the decline in the labour share is driven largely by decreases in the average labour income of the self‐employed. This is consistent with a scenario in which new forms of work erode the earning power of the self‐employed. Focusing on income inequality, the use of the labour income distribution as a proxy for the total income distribution is found to be a more reliable proxy than the commonly used expenditure distribution data. Moreover, the estimates suggest that the use of expenditure as a proxy of income have led earlier studies to underestimate total income inequality severely in less developed countries. Hence, global income inequality is likely to be much higher than previously assumed.

Analysis of Efficiency of Government Expenditure In Health Sector in Central Java Province in 2012-2014

Health is one of the important factors in the success of the economic development in a country. The Government has managed the health budgets of at least ten percent of the total of the available local government budget. However, the amount of health budget has not been balanced yet by the optimal achievement of health status. This research aims at analyzing the technical efficiency level of the expenditure cost and the health service system and the target of improvement in order to achieve the efficiency in Central Java province in 2012-2014. This research uses Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA) method that will yield a relative efficiency value. The research uses health budget as the input variable, uses facilities and health services as the intermediate output variable, and uses the health status as the outcome variable. The assumption used is: Variable Return to Scale (VRS) and the output oriented model. The results of research that use the DEA method show that with the cost technical efficiency there are only five regencies/cities (14.3%) that have achieved an efficiency of 100 percent. While with the system technical efficiency there are only eleven regencies/cities (31.4%) that have achieved an efficient condition. This means, most regencies/cities in Central Java Province have not still efficient yet in the use of expenditure of health sector budget.

The poverty and inequality nexus in Ghana

PurposeUnderstanding the linkages between poverty and inequality is vital to any sustainable development and poverty reduction strategies. In Ghana, while poverty has reduced significantly over the years, inequality has increased. The purpose of this paper is to examine the linkages between inequality in household expenditure components and overall inequality and poverty in Ghana.Design/methodology/approachUsing microdata from the sixth round of the Ghana Living Standards Survey (GLSS 6) conducted in 2012/2013, marginal effects and elasticities were computed for both within- and between-component analysis.FindingsThe results suggest that, in general, reducing within-component inequality significantly reduces overall poverty and inequality in Ghana, compared with between-component inequality. Specifically, inequality in education and health expenditure components were the largest contributors to overall poverty and inequality. The findings imply that policies directed toward reducing within-component inequality will be more effective. Specifically, the findings of the study corroborate recent policies on education and health in Ghana aimed at inequality within these components. Sustaining and scaling up these policies will be a step in the right direction.Originality/valueThe study contributes to existing studies in several ways: first, this study becomes the first attempt to examine inequality-poverty nexus using household expenditure components in Ghana. Second, the use of expenditure in place of income is an addition to the literature. Income is usually subject to reporting biases and is minimal in expenditure. Finally, the findings highlight the need for poverty reduction strategies to focus on specific household components including education and health. Blanket interventions may not be effective in reducing inequality and poverty.

Mechanizmy ustalania cen produktów na rynku farmaceutycznym

The pharmaceutical market is characterized by the existence of state regulations restricting his freedom to market and is one of the fastest growing sectors of the economy all over the world. Factors that have a real impact on determining the price of drugs can be grouped into three categories: medical factors, economic factors, political and environmental factors. In the group of medical factors can be distinguished patent protection, the cost of producing the drug and the value of the drug. To economic factors, taking into account the aspect of market competitiveness of companies, include: the size of the producer, nature of the company - whether it is a research unit of the pharmaceutical company, return on investment – effectiveness of use of expenditure with the aim of achieving a profit (return on investment, ROI), profitability entity. The remaining group of factors (environmental, and political) relate mainly to national regulations. They are connected with among others the registration system of marketing authorization, whether a reimbursement system that determines whether and how drugs are financed from public funds. Membership in the European Union forces on all Member States to make reimbursement decisions by the so-called Transparency Directive. It is connected with the obligation to justify decisions, and calling upon objective reasons. Medical Technology Assessment Agency formulating recommendations take into account factors i.e. a therapeutic, benefits for the patients, cost-effectiveness, impact on the budget.

On the use of Budgetary Norms as A Tool for Fiscal Management

The use of expenditure needs, sometimes referred to as “expenditure norms”, “budgetary norms”, or “minimum standards”, is important in the formulation of budgets and, especially, in the establishment of transfer and grant formulae. Minimum standards are also used by central governments to control expenditure policies of subnational governments, often with the goal of protecting and enhancing national priorities. However, despite the continued wide use of expenditure norms, there are many aspects there are not fully understood. Perhaps the most basic issue is the actual construction of the norms. in this paper we examine what some countries have been doing to bring a more accurate assessment of their expenditure needs. We argue that the broad trend across most all countries is for budget controls and procedures to become less complex, and this tendency is observed throughout the assessment of expenditure needs process, including the design of grant formulae. Indeed, perhaps the major trend is to use simpler methods of expenditure needs where rules are clear for every component of the process and for all participants in the process. the consensus also appears to be that traditional budget processes should place a greater emphasis on the outcomes achieved by government spending units and the evaluation of managers and personnel according to these outcomes rather than controlling ex ante expenditure control, and that expenditure needs assessment can help in this process.

Estimation of own- and cross-price elasticities from household survey data

A methodology is proposed that allows the use of expenditure and quantity data from household surveys to estimate a system of demand equations including freely estimated own- and cross-price elasticities. Unit values of purchases by individual households are used to indicate spatial variation in prices, and the fact that households in such surveys are geographically clustered is used to separate out the effects of measurement error from genuine price variation. The method also allows for variation in quality with household incomes and with prices. Results for a five good system for the Cote d'Ivoire are presented and discussed.

THE DISTRIBUTION OF COSTS AND BENEFITS IN AN URBAN PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM

This study analyzes the distribution (by income class and race ) of the costs and benefits of Boston's public schools. Costs are the taxes supporting public education; benefits are measured by the increase in expected lifetime earnings due to education , in an effort to . improve upon the previous use of expenditure as a benefit measure. results indicate that public education redistributes income from rich to poor and from non-whites to whites. In absolute terms, education benefits children from upper-income families more than poor children, and whites considerably more than non-whites. DUsLIG education has traditionally been thought of as having important distributional consequences, and as being a means of upward economic mobility. controversy over public ediication of the last decade or so has cast doubt on the latter assumption, and has questioned again whether public education lives up to its egalitarian ideals. While some educational questions must remain controversial, the distributional impact of education can be readily measured. major purpose of this paper, then, is to determine how the * This paper summarizes the results of my senior honors thesis (Harvard College, 1969). For the sake of brevity, tedious methodological details and many intermediate results have been omitted. They are contained in the original thesis, available upon request. I wish to thank Stephan Michelson for his continued assistance. comments of Professors Dale Jorgenson, Daniel Holland, and a referee of this journal were also helpful. * * Graduate student, Department of Economics, Harvard University; Center for Educational Policy Research, Harvard University. costs and benefits of a public school system are distributed by income and race. In so doing, it will be possible (1) to determine the biases in both the costs and the benefits separately, (2) to judge whether public schools benefit all children equally, and (3) to determine how education redistributes income among income groups and between races. In the absence of markets, costs and benefits may be difficult to measure. A secondary purpose of this paper is to develop a more meaningful index of educational benefit than has been previously used. public costs of public education are the taxes which support it, and the distribution of costs is the incidence of these taxes. Private costs are external to the redistributive effects of public education and will be ignored here, even though they may partly determine who benefits from public education. Measuring the benefits of education is considerably more difficult. Previous costbenefit studies of government-provided goods and services measured benefits by expenditure per person,1 largely out of 1E.g., Oswald Brownlee, Estimated Distribution of Minnesota Taxes and Public Expenditure Benefits , University of Minneapolis Studies in Economics and Business, No. 21 (Minneapolis: 1960); Irwin Gillespie, The Effect of Public Expenditure on the Distribution of Income, in Richard Musgrave (ed.) Essays in Fiscal Federalism (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1965); Richard Musgrave and Darwin Daicoff, Who Pays the Michigan Taxes?, Michigan Tax Study Staff Papers (Lansing, Michigan: 1959), Ch. 4; Tax Foundation, Tax Burdens and Benefits of Government Expenditure by Income Class, 1961 and 1965, Research Publication No. 9 (New York: 1967).