Use Of Different Scales Research Articles

Association of Thyroid Dysfunction With Cognitive Function

In clinical guidelines, overt and subclinical thyroid dysfunction are mentioned as causal and treatable factors for cognitive decline. However, the scientific literature on these associations shows inconsistent findings. To assess cross-sectional and longitudinal associations of baseline thyroid dysfunction with cognitive function and dementia. This multicohort individual participant data analysis assessed 114 267 person-years (median, 1.7-11.3 years) of follow-up for cognitive function and 525 222 person-years (median, 3.8-15.3 years) for dementia between 1989 and 2017. Analyses on cognitive function included 21 cohorts comprising 38 144 participants. Analyses on dementia included eight cohorts with a total of 2033 cases with dementia and 44 573 controls. Data analysis was performed from December 2016 to January 2021. Thyroid function was classified as overt hyperthyroidism, subclinical hyperthyroidism, euthyroidism, subclinical hypothyroidism, and overt hypothyroidism based on uniform thyrotropin cutoff values and study-specific free thyroxine values. The primary outcome was global cognitive function, mostly measured using the Mini-Mental State Examination. Executive function, memory, and dementia were secondary outcomes. Analyses were first performed at study level using multivariable linear regression and multivariable Cox regression, respectively. The studies were combined with restricted maximum likelihood meta-analysis. To overcome the use of different scales, results were transformed to standardized mean differences. For incident dementia, hazard ratios were calculated. Among 74 565 total participants, 66 567 (89.3%) participants had normal thyroid function, 577 (0.8%) had overt hyperthyroidism, 2557 (3.4%) had subclinical hyperthyroidism, 4167 (5.6%) had subclinical hypothyroidism, and 697 (0.9%) had overt hypothyroidism. The study-specific median age at baseline varied from 57 to 93 years; 42 847 (57.5%) participants were women. Thyroid dysfunction was not associated with global cognitive function; the largest differences were observed between overt hypothyroidism and euthyroidism-cross-sectionally (-0.06 standardized mean difference in score; 95% CI, -0.20 to 0.08; P = .40) and longitudinally (0.11 standardized mean difference higher decline per year; 95% CI, -0.01 to 0.23; P = .09). No consistent associations were observed between thyroid dysfunction and executive function, memory, or risk of dementia. In this individual participant data analysis of more than 74 000 adults, subclinical hypothyroidism and hyperthyroidism were not associated with cognitive function, cognitive decline, or incident dementia. No rigorous conclusions can be drawn regarding the role of overt thyroid dysfunction in risk of dementia. These findings do not support the practice of screening for subclinical thyroid dysfunction in the context of cognitive decline in older adults as recommended in current guidelines.

GEOBIA, TREE DECISION AND HIERARCHICAL CLASSIFICATION FOR MAPPING GULLY EROSION

The gullies provoke environmental, social and financial damages. The application of corrective and preventive measures needs gullies mapping and monitoring. In this scope, this study proposes a methodology for gullies delimitation using object-oriented image analysis. For such, there were used high spatial resolution imagery and ALS data applied for two study areas, one in Uberlandia-Minas Gerais (Brazil) and another one in Queensland (Australia). The objects were generated by multiresolution segmentation. The most important attributes on the delimitation of the gullies were selected using decision tree induction algorithms, being them: spectral, altimetric and texture. Classifications by decision trees and hierarchical were carried out. The use of decision tree allowed the selection of attributes and the establishment of preliminary decision rules. However, since this procedure did not use fuzzy logic, mixtures between classes could not be evidenced in the rule base. Moreover, the classification was performed by a factor of scale only, which did not allow the identification of all the constituent features of the gully. In hierarchical classification, the procedure is performed on different scales, allowing the use of fuzzy logic to describe different degrees of membership in each class, which makes it a very attractive method for cases such as this study, where there is mixing of classes. The classification obtained with hierarchical classification it was more reliable with the field truth, by allowing the use of different scales, uncertainty insert and integration of knowledge, compared to the automatic classification by decision tree.

Bait-lamina test for assessment of polluted soils: Rough vs. Precise scales

The bait-lamina test is one of the few available methods for measuring the functional activity of soil animals, which was standardized for soil health assessment by ISO 18311. The bait consumption is measured visually on discrete scales. A two-point scale (0 or 1) is used more often, but the threshold for bait consumption scores varies from study to study: 1 point is assigned either to a hole that has been perforated to any extent, or to a hole that has been at least half perforated, or to a fully empty hole. Less often, a three-point scale (0, 0.5, and 1) or a five-point scale (0, 0.25, 0.5, 0.75, and 1) can be used. We investigated how much the use of different scales can influence statistical inferences.We have established that a point on a five-point scale is directly proportional to the proportion of the mass consumption of bait, so in this scale the value of feeding activity is an acceptable surrogate for the bait consumption rate. We analyzed outcomes of the bait-lamina test for 7 measurement rounds at the control area and an area highly polluted with metals near the copper smelter. We assumed the most accurate five-point scale to be the reference and compared it to six less precise scales with fewer points (two three-point and four two-point scales). The difference between the reference and such rough scales depends on the percentage of intermediate points (0.25, 0.5, and 0.75). It turned out that intermediate values are by no means rare (from 11% to 100% of all non-zero values), and in the polluted area they are almost twice as common as in the control area (66% and 28%, respectively). Because of this, the relative difference between the reference scale and rough scales is 2–4 times greater at the polluted site than at the control site. This can lead to a bias in the effect size index: for the rough scales, the log Response Ratio can either double or decrease by one-third relative to the reference scale. This increases the probability of type I and II errors in statistical hypothesis testing.Thus, the outcomes of the bait-lamina test are not invariant relative to the measuring procedure. The three-point scale and ISO 18311 two-point scale are the least biased relative to the reference scale. The use of other rough scales carries a risk of artifacts and should be avoided.

A tale of 3 scales: How do the 9-pt, Labeled Affective Magnitude, and unstructured Visual Analog scales differentiate real product sets of fresh berries?

Selection of scales for measuring liking remains an active area of discussion in sensory science, but there is still no real consensus on which scale a sensory scientist working in industry should use to measure actual hedonic responses to food products. Key criteria for a hedonic scale are whether it sensitively and efficiently discriminates among consumer responses to products. Therefore, the key question this study investigates is whether the use of different scales by the same subjects on the same products in a real-world situation would provide different results for the sensory analyst. To address this question, this study comprises the evaluation of 6 for-market varieties each of 4 berries—raspberry, strawberry, blackberry, and blueberry—by the same N = 147 untrained subjects using 3 popular scales—the 9-pt hedonic scale, the Labeled Affective Magnitude Scale (LAM), and the unstructured Visual Analog Scale (VAS). Data were analyzed by mixed-effects ANOVA with subsequent scale-performance and post-hoc measures, and by bootstrapping simulation studies to estimate the empirical power of each scale to detect differences. For each berry type, significant differences in liking were detected by at least one scale, but scale performance differed. The 9-pt scale was the only one of the three to detect differences among the blueberry samples, and examination of ANOVA and post-hoc results for all berries showed that the 9-pt scale consistently discriminated among samples as well or better than the other two scales. In simulation studies, the 9-pt scale showed reliable detection of differences at sample sizes smaller or equal to the other two scales. It is apparent that—in terms of real-world applications and expected detection of differences—the 9-pt scale discriminates consumer liking for different products as well or better than two continuous scales and can be retained in industry research programs.

Modern approaches to the conservative treatment of osteoarthritis from the standpoint of evidence-based medicine

Evidence-based medicine plays a leading role in modern clinical practice. The most well-known scales for evaluating the quality of evidence and recommendations based on them are OCEBM (Oxford Centre for Evidence-based Medicine), GRADE (Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation), NICE (National Institute for Health and Care excellence). Objective: to acquaint readers with modern clinical guidelines for conservative treatment of osteoarthritis (OA), developed on the basis of the principles of evidence-based medicine. GRADE scale is widely used. The greatest authority among professionals have community leaders: ACR (American College of Rheumatologists), EULAR (European Antirheumatic League), OARSI (International Society of Osteoarthritis Researchers), AAOS (American Academy of Orthopedic Surgeons), ESCEO (European Society for Clinical and Economic Studies aspects of osteoporosis, osteoarthritis and musculoskeletal diseases). Their differences are due, in particular, to the use of different scales for assessing the levels of evidence and strength recommendations and relating to the use of SYSADOA (symptomatic slow-acting drugs for the treatment of OA), intra-articular injections of various drugs (corticosteroids, PRP, hyaluronic acid, etc.). The article presents strictly and conditionally recommended methods of conservative treatment of osteoarthritis of the hand, knee and hip joints. Conclusions: modern clinical guidelines are based on objective scales for evaluating evidence and recommendations, respectively, the probability of systematic errors is reduced. Therefore, prescribing according to them OA treatment regimes, we are sure that we choose the most effective among all available approaches.

The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of hospital-based specialist palliative care for adults with advanced illness and their caregivers.

The effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of hospital-based specialist palliative care for adults with advanced illness and their caregivers.

Gaussian mixture modeling and model-based clustering under measurement inconsistency

Finite mixtures present a powerful tool for modeling complex heterogeneous data. One of their most important applications is model-based clustering. It assumes that each data group can be reasonably described by one mixture model component. This establishes a one-to-one relationship between mixture components and clusters. In some cases, however, this relationship can be broken due to the presence of observations from the same class recorded in different ways. This effect can occur because of recording inconsistencies due to the use of different scales, operator errors, or simply various recording styles. The idea presented in this paper aims to alleviate this issue through modifications incorporated into mixture models. While the proposed methodology is applicable to a broad class of mixture models, in this paper it is illustrated on Gaussian mixtures. Several simulation studies and an application to a real-life data set are considered, yielding promising results.

The Role of Scale-Induced Round Numbers and Goal Specificity on Goal Accomplishment Perceptions

Goal progress can be measured using different scales (e.g., lbs., kg, oz., inches lost in weight loss domain). Despite considerable research on perceived goal progress, little is known about the effects of measurement scales on the mental representation of goal attainment. In three studies, we examine how the use of different scales can change the perceptions of progress in the realization of a goal. First, we demonstrate that reaching scale-induced round numbers leads to perceptions of higher accomplishment and lower motivation than corresponding non-round numbers on different scales. For example, if someone is running 2.2 miles a day, running 20 miles feels like a higher accomplishment than its equivalent of running 9 days, whereas running 10 days feel better than its equivalent of running 22 miles. We further show that this effect is moderated by goal specificity (e.g., I want to run as much as I can vs. I want to run for a month or 60 miles) and whether the level of actual progress made is high or low. When the goal is specific scale-induced round numbers lead to higher perceived accomplishment at lower progress levels, whereas when the goal is not specific, they lead to higher perceived accomplishment at higher progress levels.

La soledad en el anciano

Introducción: La soledad es la carencia de compañía, implica la falta de contacto con otras personas. Debido a los avances científicos en el ámbito sanitario la media de edad ha aumentado y son cada vez más importantes los cuidados en el anciano para evitar la soledad y los problemas que puede provocar en su salud.Objetivos: Analizar el proceso de valoración de la situación de soledad en la población anciana por los profesionales sanitarios y describir aquellas intervenciones de enfermería que contribuyen a la mejora en dicha situación. Material y métodos: Revisión bibliográfica en las principales bases de datos científicas de artículos en inglés y español de los últimos cinco años. Se ha planteado la pregunta PICO sobre los cuidados del anciano y la soledad. El número de artículos consultados ha sido de 21. Además, se ha revisado la cartera de servicios del SACYL y el motor de búsqueda NNNConsult. Resultados: El uso de diferentes escalas, OARS, UCLA, Gijón o Philadelphia, junto a modelos de valoración de las necesidades, permiten detectar precozmente la soledad en los ancianos y por lo tanto realizar actividades de prevención. La Clasificación de Intervenciones Enfermeras NIC recoge intervenciones de enfermería en consonancia con Diagnósticos Enfermeros NANDA adecuadas a los resultados que esperamos obtener ante la soledad en el anciano. Conclusiones: El personal sanitario es clave en la detección de la soledad en los ancianos a través del uso de los diferentes medios que el sistema sanitario pone a su disposición. Detectarla precozmente evita otros problemas de salud que se dan a causa de esta.

Risk factors for chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy in patients receiving taxane- and platinum-based chemotherapy.

BackgroundChemotherapy‐induced peripheral neuropathy (CIPN) is a significant and difficult to manage side effect of neurotoxic chemotherapies. Several risk factors for CIPN have been identified to date, but inconsistencies and methodological limitations exist in past research. Also, a limited number of potential risk factors has been investigated in the past.AimThe objective of this study was to assess the relative contribution of a wider range of risk factors in the development of CIPN.MethodsThis analysis used the 6‐month data after starting chemotherapy from a larger prospective observational study on CIPN risk, prevalence, and quality of life. Patients were assessed at recruitment for possible CIPN risk factors, including prior history of neuropathies, current/past infectious diseases; neurotoxic medication history; personal and treatment characteristics; smoking history, alcohol use, and vegetable/fruit intake. Neuropathy was assessed at 6‐months after starting chemotherapy with the neuropathy (motor/sensory) items of the NCI‐CTCAE scale and the WHO criterion for neuropathy. Data on symptom burden were also collected.ResultsData were available from 255 patients from three cancer centers in Hong Kong, Singapore, and UK. The use of different scales did not always identify the same predictor variables. Key risk factors in multivariate regression models included older age (highest OR = 1.08, p < 0.01 with the WHO scale), chemotherapy (platinum‐based chemotherapy had OR = 0.20–0.27 in developing CIPN compared to taxane‐based chemotherapy), history of neuropathy (for motor CIPN only, OR = 8.36, p < 0.01), symptom burden (OR = 1.06, p < 0.05), number of chemotherapy cycles received (OR = 1.19–1.24, p < 0.01), and alcohol intake (OR = 0.32, p < 0.05). In univariate analysis, the use of statins was implicated with CIPN (p = 0.03–0.04 with different assessments) and diabetes showed a trend (p = 0.09) in the development of CIPN.ConclusionThis study confirmed the CIPN risk related to certain variables and identified new ones. This knowledge can assist with treatment decisions and patient education.

Comparison of Judgment Scales of the Analytical Hierarchy Process — A New Approach

The analytic hierarchy process (AHP) remains a popular multi-criteria decision method. One topic under discussion of AHP is the use of different scales to translate judgments into ratios. The author makes a new approach to compare different scale functions and to derive a recommendation for the application of scales. The approach is based on simple analytic functions and takes into consideration the number of criteria of the decision problem. A generalization of the so-called balanced scale is proposed, and a new adaptive-balanced scale is introduced. Scales are then categorized and compared based on weight boundaries and weight ratios, weight uncertainties, weight dispersion and number of decision criteria. Finally, a practical example of a decision hierarchy is presented applying the different scales. The results show that the generalized balanced scale improves weight dispersion and weight uncertainty in comparison to the fundamental AHP scale. The proposed adaptive-balanced scale overcomes the problem of a change of the maximum weight depending on the number of decision criteria.

Probiotics, Stress, and Irritable Bowel Syndrome

Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is a functional, gastrointestinal disease characterized by a combination of chronic or recurrent symptoms such as abdominal pain and abnormal bowel habit. Most of the IBS features occur without identifiable organic cause and are strongly influenced by stress and anxiety suggesting the involvement of brain–gut interactions in this disease. Microbiota changes have also been reported such as decreased abundance of the genera Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus and increased firmicutes: bacteroidetes ratio but there is no consensus on a specific IBS microbiota signature. Psychological stress in rodents impacts intestinal epithelial barrier integrity as well as the composition of microbial communities and induces visceral pain, providing an interesting model for IBS pathophysiology investigation. Modulation of the intestinal microbiota using probiotics in preclinical trials prevents stress-induced visceral hypersensitivity directly through probiotic metabolites production or indirectly through prevention of the intestinal barrier function impairment. The clinical efficacy of probiotic treatments has also been suggested but the use of different scales to analyze the mean differences of symptoms in various studies has limited the ability of all existing meta-analyses in IBS to confirm the effectiveness of probiotics on major IBS symptoms and patient quality of life.

Economic Versus Social Values in Land and Property Management: Two Sides of the Same Coin?

This article reviews and analyses how and why land-management practice draws on two contrasting value systems: economic and social. Land managers are at the crossroads of different value systems, which both overlap and contrast. The aim of this article is to provide an understanding of which aspects are crucial in each of the value systems, and to provide a basis for how and where the value systems can be connected and where they are contradictory. This is undertaken using an exploratory qualitative and descriptive comparison, which contrasts the epistemic logics of the value systems, the manner in which each system makes use of different scales, and the way in which decisions are made with each value system. Such an understanding is crucial to improve coherence in designing and predicting the future effects of land-management interventions. Currently, practitioners tend to design interventions based on single value systems, rather than on combining or integrating value systems. The discursive comparison provides the initial steps towards a more coherent understanding of the common ground and the missing links in value logics applied in land management. These results are relevant to provide better descriptions and predictions of the effects of land-use interventions and develop improved transdisciplinary models to predict changes and development in the utilization of land or property.

The prevalence of depressive symptoms in ‘left-behind children’ in China: a meta-analysis of comparative studies and epidemiological surveys

BackgroundDepressive symptoms are common in ‘left-behind children (LBC)’ in China, but their prevalence estimates have been inconsistent. This comprehensive meta-analysis examined the pooled prevalence of depressive symptoms in LBC in China and its associated factors. MethodsTwo investigators systematically and independently searched both English (PubMed, PsycINFO, and EMBASE) and Chinese (WanFang Database, CNKI, and SinoMed) databases. Comparative and epidemiological studies reporting the prevalence of depressive symptoms and associated relevant information were included. The prevalence of depressive symptoms was pooled using the random-effects model. ResultsA total of 39 studies covering 31,663 LBC and 20,049 non-LBC controls were included in the meta-analysis. The figures of pooled prevalence of depressive symptoms in LBC and non-LBC were 30.7% and 22.8%, respectively. Subgroup analyses revealed that the use of different scales was significantly associated with the prevalence of depressive symptoms. Compared with non-LBC, LBC were more likely to suffer from depressive symptoms (OR = 1.7, 95% CI: 1.4–1.9). ConclusionsThis meta-analysis confirmed that the prevalence of depressive symptoms in LBC is common in China. In order to reduce the risk of depressive symptoms in this vulnerable segment of the population, the development of screening and therapeutic interventions is urgently needed.

Validation française de l’Inventaire d’Attitudes Environnementales

IntroductionClimate change has made it necessary to develop valid tools for studying pro-environmental behaviors. ObjectivesThe present study assessed the validity of the French translation of the brief version of Milfont and Duckitt's (2010) Environmental Attitudes Inventory. We chose this scale for its psychometric properties, its ability to predict behaviors, its theoretical foundations, and its use in many countries. In addition to the translation, we tested a shortened, 12-item version of the scale. MethodThree samples were used to study the structure of the IAE, its nomological network, its test–retest fidelity, and its predictive validity. ResultsIAE-24 has similar psychometric properties to the original version, for both one-factor and two-factor models (preservation and utilization dimensions). IAE-12 has satisfactory internal consistency if the one-factor model is used. The nomological network of IAE-24 is not totally identical to the original version. Differences can be ascribed to inconsistencies in the literature and the use of different scales. Both IAE-24 and IAE-12 have very satisfactory predictive validity and test–retest reliability. ConclusionThe French version of the IAE has satisfactory psychometric properties.

Integration of external estimated breeding values and associated reliabilities using correlations among traits and effects

Based on a Bayesian view of linear mixed models, several studies showed the possibilities to integrate estimated breeding values (EBV) and associated reliabilities (REL) provided by genetic evaluations performed outside a given evaluation system into this genetic evaluation. Hereafter, the term “internal” refers to this given genetic evaluation system, and the term “external” refers to all other genetic evaluations performed outside the internal evaluation system. Bayesian approaches integrate external information (i.e., external EBV and associated REL) by altering both the mean and (co)variance of the prior distributions of the additive genetic effects based on the knowledge of this external information. Extensions of the Bayesian approaches to multivariate settings are interesting because external information expressed on other scales, measurement units, or trait definitions, or associated with different heritabilities and genetic parameters than the internal traits, could be integrated into a multivariate genetic evaluation without the need to convert external information to the internal traits. Therefore, the aim of this study was to test the integration of external EBV and associated REL, expressed on a 305-d basis and genetically correlated with a trait of interest, into a multivariate genetic evaluation using a random regression test-day model for the trait of interest. The approach we used was a multivariate Bayesian approach. Results showed that the integration of external information led to a genetic evaluation for the trait of interest for, at least, animals associated with external information, as accurate as a bivariate evaluation including all available phenotypic information. In conclusion, the multivariate Bayesian approaches have the potential to integrate external information correlated with the internal phenotypic traits, and potentially to the different random regressions, into a multivariate genetic evaluation. This allows the use of different scales, heritabilities, variance components, measurement units, or trait definitions for external and internal traits. However, one possible issue for implementing multivariate Bayesian approaches could be the availability or estimation of genetic correlations between external and internal traits.

Making Sense of Variations in Prevalence Estimates of Depression in Cancer: A Co-Calibration of Commonly Used Depression Scales Using Rasch Analysis.

The use of different depression self-report scales warrants co-calibration studies to establish relationships between scores from 2 or more scales. The goal of this study was to examine variations in measurement across 5 commonly used scales to measure depression among patients with cancer: Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale-Depression subscale (HADS-D), Centre for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CES-D), Patient Health Questionnaire-9 (PHQ-9), Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II), and Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale-Depression subscale (DASS-D). The depression scales were completed by 162 patients with cancer. Participants were also assessed by the major depressive episode module of the Structured Clinical Interview for Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th Edition. Rasch analysis and receiver operating characteristic curves were performed. Rasch analysis of the 5 scales indicated that these all measured depression. The HADS and BDI-II had the widest measurement range, whereas the DASS-D had the narrowest range. Co-calibration revealed that the cutoff scores across the scales were not equivalent. The mild cutoff score on the PHQ-9 was easier to meet than the mild cutoff score on the CES-D, BDI-II, and DASS-D. The HADS-D possible cutoff score was equivalent to cutoff scores for major to severe depression on the other scales. Optimal cutoff scores for clinical assessment of depression were in the mild to moderate depression range for most scales. The labels of depression associated with the different scales are not equivalent. Most markedly, the HADS-D possible case cutoff score represents a much higher level of depression than equivalent scores on other scales. Therefore, use of different scales will lead to different estimates of prevalence of depression when used in the same sample.

Consumer Perception Concerning Apple Fruit Quality, Depending on Cultivars and Hedonic Scale of Evaluation - a Case Study

The objective of this study was to analyse fruit quality through consumers’ perceptions and their preferences revealed by two panel questionnaires. Among the most common apple cultivars on the Romanian markets, were chosen the ones existing simultaneously and continuously (over two-years, during January-March): ‘Golden Delicious’, ‘Braeburn’, ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Red Delicious’, ‘Jonagold’, ‘Jonathan’, ‘Florina’, ‘Idared’. The consumers’ panel for sensory evaluation was represented by students, who completed two types of questionnaires. Both questionnaires refer to foremost traits for dessert apple, such as fruit appearance (size, shape, color) and intrinsic peculiarities (pulp consistency, juiciness, taste, flavor). First questionnaire comprised different scales for the traits (1-3, 1-5 or 1-15), while the second one consisted of the hedonic scale (1-9) for all traits. For commercial appearance of the fruits were highlighted ‘Idared’, ‘Granny Smith’, ‘Braeburn’ and especially ‘Jonagold’. ‘Braeburn’ was distinct by the highest quality taste (average grade 13.9 on the scoring taste scale 1-15) and also for fruit flavor. ‘Granny Smith’, a commercially attractive-looking fruit, received only an average of 6.2 for taste and 2.6 for flavor. ‘Granny Smith’ presented the largest value for the coefficients of variation for taste, this variety being preferred less by female than male tasters. Inconsistency of the market, prices and foreign assortment on Romanian market was illustrated by the lack of statistical correlations between commercial fruit quality and price. The study could provide useful background information for apples breeders, farmers and marketing fruits strategy. The use of different scales for panel evaluation, dependent on the relevance of traits, might be a proper solution for reducing bias. In this case, the 1-15 large scale for apple taste compared with lower ones for other traits assured a more appropriate image of the tasters’ preferences.

Differentiated cell behavior: a multiscale approach using measure theory

This paper deals with the derivation of a collective model of cell populations out of an individual-based description of the underlying physical particle system. By looking at the spatial distribution of cells in terms of time-evolving measures, rather than at individual cell paths, we obtain an ensemble representation stemming from the phenomenological behavior of the single component cells. In particular, as a key advantage of our approach, the scale of representation of the system, i.e., microscopic/discrete vs. macroscopic/continuous, can be chosen a posteriori according only to the spatial structure given to the aforesaid measures. The paper focuses in particular on the use of different scales based on the specific functions performed by cells. A two-population hybrid system is considered, where cells with a specialized/differentiated phenotype are treated as a discrete population of point masses while unspecialized/undifferentiated cell aggregates are represented by a continuous approximation. Numerical simulations and analytical investigations emphasize the role of some biologically relevant parameters in determining the specific evolution of such a hybrid cell system.

INSIGHTS INTO QUALITATIVE VARIABLES ASSESSMENT IN MARKETING RESEARCH

In this paper we present a number of issues to be taken into account in assessing the marketing qualitative variables. Thus, the opinions, the preferences, the attitudes, etc. of the consumers are qualitative variables whose measurement requires the use of different scales presented in the literature and, where appropriate, the researcher must develop scales adapted to the particularities of the study undertaken. Using a certain scale it is not random action. The literature presents both comparative methods and non-comparative scaling methods. Each of these categories generates certain types of information, and also they are complementary in the evaluation of various products, brands, organizations etc. Thus, if in a non-comparative scaling method can get information about how a product is evaluated (favorable or unfavorable, for example) by the respondents, comparative scaling method allows us to determine where that product is in a series of investigated competing products. Another aspect to be taken into account in the construction of the scales is the number of levels used. It is intended to obtain information with high degree of detail, but without the risk of increasing the rate of non-response due to inability of respondents to make assessments through scales with too many levels. Finally, the expression used to collect information from respondents is essential in obtaining accurate and comparable information, with the emphasis on avoiding ambiguity in drawing scales.