Use Of Agricultural Chemicals Research Articles

English

The abusive use of toxic agricultural chemicals (insecticides, fungicides and herbicides in particular) by farmers has attracted a lot of attention from environmentalists, scientists and policy makers.  The use of these toxic agricultural chemicals not only contributes to environmental deterioration but equally poses major health risks to farmers and the general public. It is therefore incumbent on policy makers to take measures geared towards limiting the use of toxic agricultural chemicals. Some of these measures could be the vulgarization of agro-ecological farming practices like agroforestry. It is in this light that this study comparatively examined the use of toxic agricultural chemicals by agroforestry practicing and non-agroforestry practicing farmers in a bid to identify the most sustainable and viable option. Both primary and secondary data were collected for the study, and analysis was done using the statistical software Microsoft Excel 20007 and SPSS 17.0. It was found that the main crops grown by agroforestry practicing farmers were food and cash crops while non-agroforestry practicing farmers cultivated mainly market gardening crops and to some extent, food crops. Toxic agricultural chemicals (mainly fungicides, herbicides and insecticides) were used in large quantities and frequently by a majority (over 50%) of non-agroforestry practicing farmers, while less than 40% of agroforestry practicing farmers used toxic agricultural chemicals, mostly in small quantities and less frequently.  A significant direct non-cause-effect and cause-effect relationship (p<0.05) existed between the non-cause-effect and cause-effect relationship (p<0.05) between the non-practice of agroforestry and the use of toxic agricultural chemicals, while a significant inverse non-cause-effect and cause-effect relationship (p<0.05) was found to exist between the practice of agroforestry and the use of toxic agricultural chemicals. This implies that the practice of agroforestry can play a major role in reducing the use of toxic agricultural chemicals by farmers. It is recommended that policy makers should formulate policies geared towards fast-tracking agroforestry into the mainstream as a sustainable and viable pathway to limiting the use of toxic agricultural chemicals by farmers. Key words: Farmers, insecticides, fungicides, herbicides, agroforestry, sole cropping, Cameroon.

The Role of Prevention in Reducing the Economic Impact of ME/CFS in Europe: A Report from the Socioeconomics Working Group of the European Network on ME/CFS (EUROMENE).

This report addresses the extent to which there may be scope for preventive programmes for Myalgic Encephalomyelitis/Chronic Fatigue Syndrome (ME/CFS), and, if so, what economic benefits may accrue from the implementation of such programmes. We consider the economic case for prevention programmes, whether there is scope for preventive programmes for ME/CFS, and what are the health and economic benefits to be derived from the implementation of such programmes. We conclude that there is little scope for primary prevention programmes, given that ME/CFS is attributable to a combination of host and environmental risk factors, with host factors appearing to be most prominent, and that there are few identified modifiable risk factors that could be the focus of such programmes. The exception is in the use of agricultural chemicals, particularly organophosphates, where there is scope for intervention, and where Europe-wide programmes of health education to encourage safe use would be beneficial. There is a need for more research on risk factors for ME/CFS to establish a basis for the development of primary prevention programmes, particularly in respect of occupational risk factors. Secondary prevention offers the greatest scope for intervention, to minimise diagnostic delays associated with prolonged illness, increased severity, and increased costs.

Extracts and metabolites derived from the leaves of Cassia alata L. exhibit in vitro and in vivo antimicrobial activities against fungal and bacterial plant pathogens

The use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture has not only caused humans and animals’ health risks but also environmental pollution. Botanical pesticides have been considered as alternatives to harmful pesticides because of their low toxicity and easy biodegradable property. The objective of this study was to evaluate the antimicrobial activities of the extracts and metabolites from the leaves of Cassia alata L. against fungal and bacterial phytopathogens. Ethyl acetate-soluble extract derived from C. alata leaves has been found to remarkably control the plant diseases caused by fungi Magnaporthe oryzae, Phytophthora infestans, Colletotrichum coccodes and Puccinia recondita in vivo. To provide scientific evidence on the effectiveness of the ethyl acetate-soluble extract against plant pathogens, the bioassay-guided fractionation of the extract was conducted and thereby eight compounds including methyl 2,4,6-trihydroxybenzoate (1), aloe-emodin (2), kaempferol (3), (-)-epiafzelechin (4), rhein (5), kaempferol-3-O-glycoside (6), kaempferol-3-O-gentiobiside (7) and aloe-emodin-8-O-β-D-glucoside (8) were identified. The content of 2, 5, and 8 in the ethyl acetate-soluble extract and methanol extract of C. alata leaves were quantified by HPLC analysis. Compounds 3-8 displayed in vitro antifungal activity against M. oryzae and Phytophthora species. Out of the isolated compounds, rhein (5) displayed the best antifungal activity; it strongly inhibited in vitro the mycelial growth of Phytophthora species and effectively suppressed tomato late blight (TLB) by 57.1 % at 150 μg/mL and 87.9 % at 300 μg/mL on the tomato seedlings in vivo. Besides, rhein showed excellent in vitro inhibition for the bacterial growth of Acidovorax avenae subsp. cattlvae with an IC50 of 2.5 μg/mL. From the results, it was confirmed that the ethyl acetate-soluble extract derived from C. alata leaves contains antimicrobial constituents against various plant pathogens and has potent in vivo efficacy for controlling plant diseases.

Pesticide Toxicity Hazard of Agriculture: Regional and Commodity Hotspots in Australia.

While the need to reduce the impacts of pesticide use on the environment is increasingly acknowledged, the existing data on the use of agricultural chemicals are hardly adequate to support this goal. This study presents a novel, spatially explicit, national-scale baseline analysis of pesticide toxicity hazard (the potential for chemicals to do harm). The results show an uneven contribution of land uses and growing regions toward the national aggregate toxicity hazard. A hectare of horticultural crops generates on average ten times more aquatic ecotoxicity hazard and five times more human toxicity hazard than a hectare of broadacre crops, but the higher yields and incomes in horticulture mean that both sectors are similar in terms of environmental efficiency. Livestock is the sector with the least contribution to overall hazard, even when the indirect hazard associated with feed is considered. Metrics such as pesticide use (kg/ha) or spray frequency (sprays/ha), commonly reported in highly aggregated forms, are not linearly related to toxicity hazard and are therefore less informative in driving reductions in impact. We propose toxicity hazard as a more suitable indicator for real-world risk than quantity of pesticide used, especially because actual risk can often be difficult to quantify. Our results will help broaden the discussion around pathways toward sustainability in the land-use sector and identify targeted priorities for action.

Nutrient management in temperate fruits crops

All plants require a sufficient supply of essential nutrients to reach their potential, and a deficiency of any single nutrient is enough to limit yields. Supply of adequate quantities of nutrients is essential for sustainable high yield of quality fruits. Unscientific use of chemicals in agriculture has led to several health hazards and environmental problems. To protect our crops and the environment we have to follow sustainable and eco- friendly agriculture, which minimizes the use of harmful and energy intensive inputs and adopts use of organic manures and bio fertilizers. On the other hand, increase in productivity of horticultural produce removes large amounts of essential nutrients from the soil. Without proper management, continuous production of crops reduces nutrient reserves in the soil. Another issue of great concern is the sustainability of soil productivity, as land began to be intensively exhausted to produce higher yields. Overtime, cumulative depletion decreases production, yield and soil fertility and lead to soil degradation. The new approach to farming often referred to as sustainable agriculture, seeks to introduce agricultural practices that are ecofriendly and maintain the long term ecological balance of soil ecosystem. The judicial use of organic inputs with inorganic is considered as the alternative source to meet the nutrient requirement of the crops.

Biological control by Plant Growth Promoting Rhizobacteria

Plant Growth Promoter Rhizobacteria (PGPR) is soil bacteria that can live on, in or around plant tissue and promote plant growth by many mechanisms that include a biological control of plant pathogens. Indeed, PGPRs have a protective effect through several modes of action such as antagonism, competition, production of hydrolytic enzymes and biofilm formation. Moreover, the use of PGPRs as biocontrol agents is very harmonious with the environment and therefore represents a good alternative to the use of chemicals in agriculture. This review is presented as a general bibliographical synthesis on the different aspects of PGPRs and their biocontrol potential.

Effects of Nonthermal Plasma on Morphology, Genetics and Physiology of Seeds: A Review.

Nonthermal plasma (NTP), or cold plasma, has shown many advantages in the agriculture sector as it enables removal of pesticides and contaminants from the seed surface, increases shelf life of crops, improves germination and resistance to abiotic stress. Recent studies show that plasma treatment indeed offers unique and environmentally friendly processing of different seeds, such as wheat, beans, corn, soybeans, barley, peanuts, rice and Arabidopsis thaliana, which could reduce the use of agricultural chemicals and has a high potential in ecological farming. This review covers the main concepts and underlying principles of plasma treatment techniques and their interaction with seeds. Different plasma generation methods and setups are presented and the influence of plasma treatment on DNA damage, gene expression, enzymatic activity, morphological and chemical changes, germination and resistance to stress, is explained. Important plasma treatment parameters and interactions of plasma species with the seed surface are presented and critically discussed in correlation with recent advances in this field. Although plasma agriculture is a relatively new field of research, and the complex mechanisms of interactions are not fully understood, it holds great promise for the future. This overview aims to present the advantages and limitations of different nonthermal plasma setups and discuss their possible future applications.

Front and Back Covers, Volume 36, Number 6. December 2020

Front and back cover caption, volume 36 issue 6Front coverTOXIC FLOWSThis image was taken in the control room of Sweden's iconic Ågesta nuclear power station, essentially unchanged since it was last operated in 1974. The power station was commissioned shortly after the end of World War II when Sweden adopted an ambitious nuclear programme aimed at energy self‐sufficiency.A small plant, Ågesta was the first energy‐generating nuclear reactor in Sweden. From 1964 to 1974 the pressurized heavy water reactor supplied electricity and district heating to the Stockholm suburb of Farsta. Due to its proximity to this residential area, the reactor was largely built underground, inside a bedrock cavity.The plant operated reliably except for one dramatic incident that occurred in 1969. A technician made an error in a routine change of a valve, releasing 500 tons of water from a cooling tower 30 metres above the reactor building that knocked out the reactor control system. Short circuits resulted in valves opening and closing at random, putting the plant at risk of a meltdown. The public was not notified after officials determined that evacuation of the area at risk could not take place fast enough. However, after a closure of seven months, the plant continued to operate safely until its closure in 1974.Stockholm's fire services subsequently used the decommissioned plant as a training site. There was some interest in preserving the power station as a national heritage site in recognition of its aesthetic, cultural and historical significance. Some expressed national pride in the facility as an impressive technological achievement of its time. However, in December 2019 the decision was taken to demolish the buildings, which would otherwise have required major investments to meet safety standards.In advanced industrial societies some types of toxic exposures, like radiation, are measured extensively, using a variety of technological devices that feed into the calibration of risk. However, as Penny Harvey points out in this issue, the promise of monitoring toxic flows from the new nuclear station under construction at Hinkley Point does not allay everyone's fears.In this special issue on toxic flows, a variety of toxic substances are shown to escape regulation. Their seepage into the environment through waste recycling, dumping and unplanned incidents distributes and potentially continues to displace contamination far from the sites of their production and use.Back coverTOXIC FLOWS: PESTICIDESDuring her 2019 fieldwork with smallholder farmers in western Kenya, Miriam Waltz observed many instances of the manual application of pesticides through various methods, sometimes involving knapsack sprayers, sometimes handheld sprayers or plastic bottles ‐ as well as various levels of protective equipment.Smallholder farmers increasingly use pesticides to secure their harvests, especially as new pest infestations and changing weather patterns contribute to a sense of precarity around agricultural production as a source of income. Many also share concerns around the potential toxic effects of these substances. Yet, the uncertain status of pesticides as both poison and medicine, combined with divergent temporalities of risk and exposure, meant that decisions around pesticide use at the household level were heavily shaped by economic considerations.While farmers express considerable uncertainty and ambivalence around the application, effects and sourcing of pesticides, they consider these to be increasingly part of modern farming and a legitimate means to secure aspirations for the future as well as shorter‐term livelihoods. In this context, it is important to understand how these farmers are simply ‘trying’: trying out new things, unsure of the outcome, in an effort to secure livelihoods, food and good health.The negotiations that arise at a community and household level around the everyday use of toxic agricultural chemicals point to the complicated act of balancing between different kinds of investments associated with agricultural production and the need to secure livelihoods under conditions of climate change, intensifying pest infestations and the increasing trade in synthetic pesticides.Across the globe, industrially produced chemical compounds such as agricultural pesticides are entering into local livelihoods, economies and forms of consumption, where there is little regulation and where risks remain uncalculated. While international conventions seek to regulate the production and use of harmful chemicals, human populations are unequally exposed as local capacities to monitor and regulate differ enormously between industrialized and developing countries.

A study on the use of agricultural chemicals for Tomato cultivation in Assam, India

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Organic cotton production may alleviate the environmental impacts of intensive conventional cotton production

AbstractConventional cotton production has been associated with the extensive use of agricultural chemicals, leading to environmental and health problems, decreased effectiveness of pesticides and higher costs of production. Organic bans the use of most pesticides while providing premiums for growers, and therefore may be a beneficial alternative for growers. Unfortunately, there has been a paucity of research examining the specific practices used by organic cotton growers and the environmental aspects of those practices. This study surveyed organic cotton producers and processors to document specific approaches and techniques used in organic cotton production and processing, the environmental impacts of those techniques and challenges facing organic cotton growers. We discuss the environmental impacts of organic management techniques and methods for conserving water and reducing dependence on irrigation. We also highlight the challenges to organic production identified in the survey, including management for weeds, insects and diseases, genetic contamination of organic crops from genetically modified cotton, organic seed availability, climate change, chemical drift and marketing of organic cotton. Finally, we suggest that investing in research to produce higher-yielding organic varieties, improved methods for organic weed management, and supporting carbon-sequestering practices will improve conversion to organic production.

Dermatological morbidity of the rural areas' population of the Republic of Uzbekistan under the conditions of use of mineral fertilizers

Introduction. Exogenous, in particular, environmental factors are among the most significant factors affecting the course of a number of dermatoses. A study of the effect of chemical use in agriculture on dermatological morbidity was conducted.Objective. To assess the features of dermatological morbidity in rural areas, depending on the load of mineral fertilizers per hectare of arable land and per capita.Materials and methods. The object of the study was persons aged 18 to 68 years living in two rural areas of the Tashkent region: Chinaz district - cotton sowing; Bostanlyk district - horticultural. Our research was used materials of statistical reporting on the volume of mineral fertilizers used, conducted screening testing, clinical examination and history taking.Results. The incidence of dermatological diseases was 2,5 times higher in the cotton growing area compared with the horticultural region (94,1 versus 38,2, p < 0,001). A comparative analysis of clinical manifestations in persons with dermatological diseases of two rural areas showed a higher degree of activity of the skin pathological process in the cotton growing area especially among people with diffuse and complicated variants of atopic dermatitis.Conclusion. Allergic diseases predominate in the structure of skin pathology in the examined areas of the Tashkent region. In a cotton-growing area, the manifestations of allergic dermatitis are characterized by a more severe course and frequent relapses. The results of the study show that both the dermatological service and the agricultural chemical management system of the Republic need to apply best practices to improve quality and to ameliorate problems.

Microbiome Innovation in Agriculture: Development of Microbial Based Tools for Insect Pest Management

According to the Entomological Society of America’s (ESA) recent position statement, invasive insects incur control costs of over $2.5 billion and cause economic damages to crops, lawns, forests, and pastures totaling $18 billion per year (“The Not-So-Hidden Dangers of Invasive Species” 2018). The threat of invasive crop pests to food security continues to be driven by complex dynamics of human movements, global trade activities, climate change, and changing agricultural practices. Chemical insecticides have been central to crop protection against invasive insects. However, a growing demand for reduced agricultural chemical use due to environmental and human health concerns in addition to pesticide resistance issues are fueling interests in innovative approaches to manage invasive pests. For decades, the role of microbes in pest management has been largely confined to using entomopathogens, with only a handful of microbial species being developed into bioinsecticides. The paradigm is shifting owing to the advent of high-throughput sequencing, functional omics, and gene editing technologies, which greatly accelerate microbial discovery, as well as a better understanding of microbial functions in complex communities across different habitats. There is also overwhelming evidence that symbiotic microbes play pivotal roles in shaping various insect traits. The collection of microbes associated with a given environment (both biotic and abiotic) and their collective genetic materials is termed the microbiome. In this paper, we survey the latest development in microbiome research that could be leveraged into novel management tools for agricultural insect pests (Figure 1). We first review the diverse insect traits shaped by insect-microbe associations that span nutrition, immunity, ecological interactions with natural enemy, insecticide resistance, and behavior. This is followed by a discussion on different microbiome manipulation approaches to alter pest traits, describing some of the opportunities and obstacles for each approach. We then highlight microbiomes as untapped chemical inventories to discover novel biopesticides, including plant-incorporated protectants and semiochemicals. The last topic covered is the use of beneficial microbes to improve performance of mass-reared insects for autocidal programs, including sterile insect technique and incompatible insect technique, in which we identify topics where data are limited or inconclusive for future research.

The potential of organic agriculture, soil structure and farmers income for inclusive agriculture sustainability: a review

Sustainable agriculture integrates three main objectives - environmental health, economic profitability, and social-economic justice. Organic farming is an alternative to sustainable agriculture that is more inclusive and has become a widespread phenomenon. Globally, the amount of land cultivated with some form of organic agriculture continues to grow. The sustainability of organic farming cannot be separated from the economic dimension, other than the environmental and social dimensions. Organic farming is not only limited to eliminating the use of synthetic inputs that can cause land degradation due to damage to soil structure, but also the sustainable use of natural resources, healthy food production and saving energy. The potential of organic farming in improving soil fertility is improving the physical and chemical properties of soil with the use of organic materials, and good management of organic farming can increase soil fertility. Economic aspects can be sustainable if agricultural production is able to meet the needs and provide sufficient income for farmers. Economic motivation now controls the direction of developing organic agriculture. Organic Agriculture can ensure stable and sustainable alternative livelihoods, especially in situations where land is available and offers opportunities for improvement, this is supported by the awareness of the dangers posed by the use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture making organic farming attract attention both at the level producers and consumers alike. Most consumers will choose food that is safe for health and environmentally friendly, thus encouraging increased demand for organic products as one of the inclusive agriculture properties.

Agrochemical Health Risks Exposure and Its Determinants: Empirical Evidence among Cassava Farmers in Nigeria

ABSTRACT Background: Over the years there has been a change in the dimensions of agricultural health risk exposure among crop farmers in Nigeria due to innovation adoption. This study assessed agrochemical health risk exposures and its determinants among cassava farmers in Nigeria. Method: The study engaged the baseline of a longitudinal study conducted using a standardized questionnaire. Randomly selected and interviewed for the study were 480 small-scale cassava farmers across 24 farming communities in Kogi and Kwara States, Nigeria. Descriptive statistics, binary regression model, and Likert scale were used for analysis. Results: Most of the farmers were exposed to agrochemical health risks in cassava operations. The frequently used chemicals belong to WHO class II and III. There was poor knowledge of safe farm practices among cassava farmers. About 77% of farmers reported not using complete protective equipment while handling farm chemicals. Several risk factors were associated with farm chemical health risks exposure, including inappropriate time of spray (Odd ratio [OR] = 1.21), frequency of spray (OR = 1.06), long hours of daily chemical spray (OR = 1.10), and non-usage of chemical labels (OR = 2.31). Conclusion:The study concluded cassava farmers in some selected communities in Kogi and Kwara States, North-Central Nigeria engage in unsafe farm practices via the use of farm chemicals that expose them to health risks. There is, therefore, a need for efficiently delivered agricultural health education as an intervention tool to alleviate Nigerian crop farmers from being exposed to such health risks.

Environmental and economic problems of land resources utilization in Ukraine (1970–1990)

Purpose of the article. The purpose of the article is to analyze negative processes occurring in land resources utilization in agriculture of Ukraine during 1970–1990 based on economic, agricultural historical studies and archive materials. Research methodology is based on the combination of general scientific and special historical methods with the principles of historicism, objectivity, consistency and interdisciplinarity. Scientific vovelty. The historical literature is supplemented with the characteristics of the development of the agro-industrial complex, in particular, the land resources utilization in Ukraine during 1970–1990. The environmental and economic component is analyzed. Conclusions. In 1970–1990, an intensive system of farming dominated in the agriculture of Ukraine. It was based on obtaining high yields of crops through the use of high doses of mineral fertilizers, the application of chemical crop protection products without regard to environmental threats, i.e. environmental pollution. Biological, environmental and economic laws of industry development were ignored. During the period under study, agriculture, on the one hand, suffered from excessive, intensive, environmentally unsound land utilization; on the other hand, also the deterioration of the environment was caused. The limit of environmental soil degradation in agricultural production was reached in the 1970s, and in 1986–1989 it was doubled. Improper application of chemicals has resulted in contamination of soil, agricultural products and the environment, which was hazardous to human health; reduction of organic matter in the soil, deterioration of its physical properties, which reduced soil fertility. The increase in the rate of use of chemicals in agriculture did not lead to the desired increase in agricultural production and improvement of its quality.

Impact of Agricultural Loan Disbursement and Chemical Fertilizer Use on the Rice Production in Bangladesh

Agriculture is one of the important issues of Bangladesh, where a larger share is related to it for livelihood, food, and socio-economic activities. Agriculture draws considerable attention and is the backbone of the Bangladesh economy. Besides enhancing food and raw materials, agriculture also enhances employment opportunities to a vast number of the population. Agriculture is affected by many factors; among those two crucial factors are agricultural credit and chemical fertilizer. This paper examined the effect of agricultural loan & chemical fertilizer on the total rice production in Bangladesh during the time 1995 to 2016. The study has used data from the economic review 2017. Data are found stationary at the difference at 1% and 5% level of significance using Augment Dicky Fuller (ADF) test. Then the study adopted multiple regressions to see the influence on agricultural loan and chemical fertilizer on total rice production. The result showed that agricultural credit has a positive & statistically significant effect on total rice production, and chemical fertilizer has a positive effect on the total rice production of Bangladesh but not statistically significant. Keyword(s): Total rice production, agricultural loan, chemical fertilizer, multiple regression. J.E.L. Classification: Q10, Q14, O13, C19.

Association of co-accumulation of arsenic and organophosphate insecticides with diabetes and atherosclerosis in a rural agricultural community: KMCH-NNCD-I study.

In last few decades, the prevalence of diabetes and vascular diseases has intensified concurrently with increased use of synthetic chemicals in agriculture. This study is aimed to evaluate the association of co-accumulation of arsenic and organophosphate (OP) insecticides with diabetes and atherosclerosis prevalence in a rural Indian population. This study included observations from KMCH-NNCD-I (2015) cross-sectional study (n = 865) from an Indian farming village. The participants had assessment of clinical parameters including HbA1c and carotid intima-media thickness and urinary heavy metals. Serum OP residues were extracted and quantified by GC-MS. Statistical analyses were performed tounravel the co-association of arsenic and OPs on prevalence of diabetes and atherosclerosis. On multivariate regression analyses, total organophosphate level and arsenic accumulation showed association with diabetes and atherosclerosis. Higher odds ratio with significant trends were observed for the sub-quartiles formed by the combination of higher quartiles of arsenic and total organophosphates in association with diabetes and atherosclerosis. We observed evidence of possible synergism between arsenic and OPs in association with prevalence of diabetes, pre-diabetes and atherosclerosis in the study population. Our findings highlight the importance of understanding health effects of mixed exposures and raises vital questions on the role of these agrochemicals in the etiology of diabetes and vascular diseases.

Replenishing the Soil: Food, Fertiliser and Soil Science in Occupied Japan (1945-52)

Abstract Environmental scientists and activists in the early twenty-first century have identified productive, healthy soils as a key factor in feeding a rapidly increasing global population and mitigating climate change. This article argues that serious food shortages in Japan following its defeat in 1945 caused the fertility of its soils to become a pressing issue for the Allied Occupation (1945-52) and one seen as central to the success of democratisation. The prospect of famine in the cities in 1946 and 1947 and associated political unrest justified urgent imports of food from the US, causing much resentment among its allies, who questioned the seriousness of the food supply crisis in Japan. The Occupation's Natural Resources Section worked to reduce Japan's dependence on food imports by surveying Japan's soils and recommending their rapid augmentation with chemical fertilisers, the manufacture of which had practically ceased during the war. The US imported nitrogenous fertiliser to supplement inadequate domestic output and provided phosphate ore (for superphosphate fertiliser) from Florida, in addition to encouraging Japanese mining operations on Angaur Island, formerly part of the Japanese empire. The latter generated conflicts with the natives of the island, the local US naval command and the Australian government. Such tensions demonstrate the many and varied facets of the 'fertiliser problem', which was seen as pivotal to food supply and economic recovery. Major imports of agricultural commodities from the US after 1952 reflected its Cold War alliance with Japan. Likewise, significant transfers of technology contributed to a steep increase in the use of agricultural chemicals, causing the fertiliser problem to become a pressing environmental one by the 1990s.

Samsun İli Çarşamba İlçesinde Çiftçilerin Tarımsal Mücadele İlaçları Kullanımında Çevreye Karşı Tutum ve Davranışları

Bitkisel üretimde tarımsal mücadele ilaçlarının kullanımı verim ve kalite üzerinde olumlu etkilere sahipken, insan ve çevre sağlığına karşı ise olumsuz etkilere sahiptir. Tarımsal mücadelede kimyasal ilaçların yoğun ve bilinçsiz olarak kullanılması ve çevre dostu tarımsal mücadele yöntemlerinin kullanılmaması ile çevre kirlenmektedir. Bu durum uzun vadede biyo-çeşitliliğin azalması ve doğal dengenin bozulması gibi sorunlara neden olmaktadır. Tarımsal üretimde üreticilerin hastalık, zararlı ve yabancı otlar ile mücadele yöntemlerini etkili şekilde uygulayamamaları, gereksiz ve yanlış dozlarda ilaç kullanımının yaygın olması ve kimyasal mücadele dışında kalan yöntemlerin tercih edilmemesi gibi sorunlar bu araştırmanın önemini ortaya koymaktadır. Bu çalışmanın amacı Samsun ili Çarşamba İlçesinde bitkisel üretim yapan üreticilerin tarımsal mücadele ilaçları kullanımında çevreye karşı tutum ve davranışlarını incelemektir. Bu amaçlar doğrultusunda Samsun İli Çarşamba İlçesinde tabakalı oransal örnekleme yöntemi ile belirlenen 112 çiftçi ile anket çalışması yapılmıştır. Araştırma bulgularına göre bölgede çiftçilerin büyük çoğunluğu kimyasal mücadele yöntemlerini kullanırken diğer yöntemleri pek tercih etmemektedir. Çiftçiler ilaçların etki derecesini orta düzeyde bulurken ilaç fiyatlarını yüksek bulmaktadır. Yörede aşırı ilaçlamanın çevreyi olumsuz etkilediği yönünde bir algı varken, biyolojik mücadele yöntemleri yeterince bilinmemektedir. Çiftçilerin tarımsal ilaçları daha bilinçli bir şekilde kullanmaları ve kimyasal mücadele dışındaki yöntemleri uygulamaları için çeşitli araştırma, eğitim ve yayım çalışmaları yapılmalıdır.

Chemical Lands: Pesticides, Aerial Spraying, and Health in North America's Grasslands since 1945 by David D. Vail

Reviewed by: Chemical Lands: Pesticides, Aerial Spraying, and Health in North America's Grasslands since 1945 by David D. Vail Christopher R. Laingen Chemical Lands: Pesticides, Aerial Spraying, and Health in North America's Grasslands since 1945. By David D. Vail. Tuscaloosa: University of Alabama Press, 2018. ix + 180 pp. Illustrations, map, notes, bibliography, index. $39.95 cloth. I applaud David Vail and the University of Alabama Press for having written and published a book that dared to do anything other than demonize farming—in general—and the use of agricultural chemicals—specifically—and pretend that our country's agricultural production systems could have been created and continue to function without them. Vail's book is truly a breath of fresh air insofar as that many social scientists, social science programs, and academic presses preach increasingly partisan worldviews about large-scale conventional agricultural practices. Farmers are, by and large, keen stewards of the land. Their livelihoods largely depend upon the health of the ecosystems within which they operate. In his book, Vail expertly explains how practices employed by "Ag pilots" evolved over many decades as they carefully considered their target landscape(s), non-target crops, and the people, animals, and surrounding environments affected by their work; they worked diligently, more often than not, alongside their clients and other stakeholders to minimize risks to these local and regional ecosystems. While many farmers were initially reluctant to adopt aerial application methods, over time, collaboration and "precision became the answer" (7). In 1950 the convergence of federal officials, agriculturalists, aeronautical engineers, and pilots to design and build the Ag-1 "flying tractor" marked the arrival of the "first plane ever designated and built exclusively for super safe and efficient crop control flying" (88). "By considering the target landscape, non-target crops, people, and animals, and the larger environment together, Ag pilots minimized risks to local ecosystems while also keeping crops safe" (128). By the 1960s a patchwork of state regulations, a growing emphasis on federal oversight of chemicals, and the release of Rachel Carson's Silent Spring placed Ag pilots, landowners, and weed scientists—overwhelmingly, people who were doing their dead-level best to reduce harm to the environment—on the side of what was viewed by the general public as an environmentally destructive industry. Are there shortcomings to these practices? Absolutely. Are there alternatives? For sure, and in certain locales—largely outside the Great Plains and Midwest— nonindustrialized and nonconventional agricultural production and pest-control practices might even prove to be more logical and optimal solutions. Vail's book, however, curbs any notion that America's food production system could have been created or sustained without the help of industrialization and nonorganic—sometimes dangerous—chemicals. Efforts that began in the mid-twentieth century aimed at improving precision in agricultural chemical application were the building blocks upon which farmers' labors continue today (e.g., Global Positioning System [GPS] technology and precision agriculture). Such efforts, many of which originated on the American Great Plains, have helped consumers get what they want out of agricultural production: to keep the cost of agricultural products as low as possible, so that we do not spend a penny more of our disposable income than necessary on the food, fuel, and fiber that our country's farmers produce. The proliferation of aerial spraying was driven not by American farmers or by "Big Ag," but by the growing demands of American consumers. All of us. Dr. Vail and the University of Alabama Press: this was a job well done! [End Page 87] Christopher R. Laingen Department of Geology and Geography Eastern Illinois University Copyright © 2020 Center for Great Plains Studies, University of Nebraska-Lincoln