Use Of Battery Electric Vehicles Research Articles

Well-to-wheel water footprints of conventional versus electric vehicles in the United States: A state-based comparative analysis

Today, increasing levels of water demand become a particularly serious challenge for many countries, especially since water is an essential element for production of transportation fuels. Unfortunately, no research efforts as of now have been directed specifically toward understanding the fundamental relationship between the adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and water demand. This research aims to fill this knowledge gap by analyzing the water consumption and withdrawal impacts resulting from the increased usage of alternative vehicle technologies in the United States. 5 vehicle types - Internal Combustion Vehicles (ICVs), Hybrid Electric Vehicles (HEVs), Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV20, PHEV40) and Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs) - are analyzed across 50 U.S. states with 3 different electricity generation mix profiles: the state-based average electricity generation mix, the state-based marginal electricity generation mix, and a hypothetical electricity generation mix consisting entirely of solar-powered charging stations. The well-to-wheel (WTW) life cycle analysis is used for the water footprint calculations. In worst case, BEVs may consume up to 70 times more water than ICVs. BEVs with solar charging have the lowest levels of water consumption and withdrawal and can reduce transportation water footprint by up to 97%. In most of the states, the marginal electricity generation mix has higher water consumption and withdrawal values than those of the average electricity generation mix. In particular, the authors suggest the use of BEVs with solar charging for states with the highest water-stressed areas (California (CA), Arizona (AZ), Nevada (NV), Florida (FL), etc.), and recommend the inclusion of incentives by federal and state governments for these states.

Improving electric vehicle utilization in carsharing: A framework and simulation of an e-carsharing vehicle utilization management system

Rapid economic growth and urbanization have motivated economists and researchers to seek innovative solutions for the many challenges that accompany these trends. This can be observed in upcoming research in sustainable transportation services where potential solutions to urban mobility issues are being explored. For example, e-carsharing, which involves the joint ownership or use of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) does not only mitigate the environmental and infrastructural hazards of privately owned internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) through reduction of emissions and urban traffic, but also alleviates many barriers such as high costs, battery life limitations, and suboptimal charging infrastructures that have prevented privately owned BEVs from reaching their full potential.In response, we present a framework for a battery electric vehicle utilization management system (BEVUMS) for automated optimization of operational decisions regarding the usage of electric vehicles in mixed vehicle-type fleets. The framework consists of four modules: energy demand prediction, battery charge scheduling, vehicle selection, and vehicle relocation. We assess the validity and capabilities of the system by simulating an e-carsharing system with data sets of 2,000 and 20,000 vehicle rental data points. Our findings suggest opportunities for prevention of charging related problems, increased BEV rental ratios, and lengthened BEV rental periods. Thus, the proposed system leads to improved BEV utilization and prolonged BEV battery life. In addition to these opportunities for increased potential sustainability provided by our proposed BEVUMS, this study further contributes to current research in the field by providing a framework and a benchmark setting for future research.

China’s Participation is an Upturning for the Battery Electric Vehicles’ Development

Development and use of battery electric vehicles and light trucks will yield remarkable benefits environmentally and economically to nations by reducing reliance on importing petroleum, urban air pollution, and greenhouse gas emissions. Battery electric vehicles industry could revolutionize energy and transportation markets, increase their worth by more than $1 trillion US dollars annually in the next 20-25 years. Battery electric vehicles strategy is vital to every long-sighted country in the long run, both in sustainable development and industrial restructuring. Meanwhile, given the superiority in advanced material science, Internet technology, and strong governmental executive ability, China’s participation is an upturning for the development of battery electric vehicles.

Assessing driving pattern factors for the specific energy use of electric vehicles: A factor analysis approach from case study data of the Mitsubishi i–MiEV minicar

Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) promise to contribute to the achievement of a more sustainable transport system. In order to estimate energetic efficiency potentials while taking into account operating conditions, insights on the factors of energy use are required. The driving pattern, i.e. the characteristics of the driving profile, is expected to affect the vehicles’ energy use to a great extent. This paper investigates whether the driving pattern parameters that have proved to be relevant for the fuel consumption of ICVs also apply to BEVs. In consequence, we analyse correlations between driving pattern factors and the specific energy use of BEVs. In order to record driving and energy data, four commercially used battery electric minicars were equipped with tracking devices. The resulting dataset contains 42 vehicle months. The driving pattern is described in 45 parameters that are calculated for segments of the logged driving profiles. Exploratory factor analysis is applied to reduce the large number of parameters into a smaller number of independent factors. Six independent driving pattern factors are identified. Suitable correlation coefficients are calculated to check for dependencies with energy use. The most significant correlations were found for the intensity of acceleration/deceleration, as well as for the oscillation factor. Our results could be used to inform further studies where driving pattern factors for ICVs and BEVs are directly compared. Also, results can be used to develop specific driving school training programs to learn to drive BEVs in an energy efficient manner.

Environmental and economic comparison of diesel and battery electric delivery vans to inform city logistics fleet replacement strategies

Poor air quality in urban areas and environmental concerns attributable to road transportation are growing and significant problems for governments. Many different options have been proposed to lower emissions, and a critical one is the use of battery electric vehicles (BEVs).Since city-logistics accounts for about 25% of urban mobility emissions, we focus on battery electric and diesel delivery vans. The aim of this paper is to present a holistic view of the problem, comparing the environmental, social and economic impact of BEV and diesel delivery vans, providing useful insights to policy makers and fleet owners willing to replace or select delivery vans to include in their city-logistics fleets.In cities where new BEV vans replace old diesel vans and the electricity mix is relatively clean, CO2 emissions and air pollutants decrease by 93–98% and 85–99%, respectively. If BEVs use electricity coming from coal energy and are compared to new diesel vans, reductions of CO2 emissions and air pollutants are in the order of 12–13% and 0–92%, respectively. Longer battery life and greater annual mileage improve these results and decrease cost differences. Results also reveal that annual emissions benefits of replacing older diesel vans with BEVs are on the same order of magnitude of equivalent annual cost differences.From a strictly business perspective, BEV vans are already economically attractive in some cities with existing incentives; however, for other cities incentives equal to the value of their emissions reduction benefits are needed, but might not be sufficient to justify BEV acquisition.

Optimal Routing and Scheduling of Charge for Electric Vehicles: A Case Study

There are increasing interests in improving public transportation systems. One of the proposed strategies for this improvement is the use of Battery Electric Vehicles (BEVs). This approach leads to a new challenge as the BEVs’ routing is exposed to the traditional routing problems of conventional vehicles, as well as the particular requirements of the electrical technologies of BEVs. Examples of BEVs’ routing problems include the autonomy, battery degradation, and charge process. This work presents a differential evolution algorithm for solving an electric vehicle routing problem (EVRP). The formulation of the EVRP to be solved is based on a scheme to coordinate the BEVs’ routing and recharge scheduling, considering operation and battery degradation costs. A model based on the longitudinal dynamics equation of motion estimates the energy consumption of each BEV. A case study, consisting of an airport shuttle service scenario, is used to illustrate the proposed methodology. For this transport service, the BEV energy consumption is estimated based on experimentally measured driving patterns.

Indirect methodologies to estimate energy use in vehicles: Application to battery electric vehicles

Considering electric mobility as a viable alternative to conventional technologies, it is essential to characterize electric vehicles in terms of their real-world energy use. The objective of this work was to characterize in detail the real-world energy use of battery electric vehicles. An innovative method was developed through a calibration procedure using a group of three electric quadricycles, which were measured in real world on-road conditions for several trips by collecting 1Hz data on vehicle dynamics (speed, acceleration and slope) and energy usage (measured directly at the battery terminals). Using this dataset, and through the adaptation of the vehicle specific power approach for quadricycles, it was possible to estimate electricity consumption with an absolute error between 1.4% and 4.5%. Due to the difficulties and risks associated to direct battery measurements of voltage and current of commercially available light-duty battery electric vehicles, this methodology was expanded and validated to this vehicle class in order to define the second-by-second electricity consumption as a function of the vehicle dynamics, based only on global recharging data per trip. The results obtained for two light-duty battery electric vehicles present similar accuracy and precision when compared to experimental results obtained for the electric quadricycles, with absolute deviations between 5.2% and 7.3%. The development of indirect methodologies to estimate the real-world on-road battery electric vehicle energy use in a prompt and simple way constitutes a powerful tool to evaluate the performance of these vehicles on any real-world trip.

Fast-charging station here, please! User criteria for electric vehicle fast-charging locations

The present research reports an empirical study targeting the analysis of evaluation criteria for fast-charging locations regarding both position and concrete realization. Involving both current and potential users of electric mobility technology discovers criteria for public acceptance as well as a description of possible drawbacks. A questionnaire study was carried out in which participants were asked to provide information about desired locations as well as their requirements for both the charging process and charging stations. In a second step, the evaluation criteria based on earlier studies were ranked. An overall consensus could not only be detected in previous focus group discussions but also in this quantitative approach. Outcomes show that motorway service stations, shopping facilities, and traditional fuel stations can be visualized as potential fast-charging station locations. It is shown that users’ willingness to accept waiting times or detours cannot be expected. Dual use, reliability, and accessibility prove to be very important criteria for site evaluation of charging locations. In relation to user diversity, significant differences in terms of both prior use of battery electric vehicles and gender as well as occasional variations for age were found.

Exploring the choice of battery electric vehicles in city logistics: A conjoint-based choice analysis

Adoption of electric vehicles by transport companies remains limited although major European cities should reach CO2-free city logistics by 2030. This paper explores therefore the vehicle choice behaviour of transport companies through a conjoint-based choice analysis.The results showed that the benefits of battery electric vehicles are less valued than their disadvantages. However, a majority of respondents agrees that authorities should encourage the use of battery electric vehicles. Based on the preferences of transporters, we conclude that the most important measures are to develop a larger charging infrastructure and implement financial incentives through subsidies or tax exemption.

Potential Users of Electric Mobility in Commercial Transport – Identification and Recommendations

Commercial transport is seen as early adopter of electric mobility. But there is lack of knowledge regarding the use of battery electric vehicles for commercial transportation and potential user groups. We outline a reliable and cost effective methodology to identify vehicles that can be substituted by battery electric vehicles in corporate fleets – technologically and economically efficient. We analyzed statistical data to identify economic sectors that might suit for electric mobility and conducted an online survey with fleet managers of these sectors to gain knowledge about driving patterns and their attitude towards the use of BEV. Furthermore we conducted a GPS data tracking of selected corporate fleets to proof substitution potentials. The analysis was done in Austria and Germany. For fleet management systems designed for mixed and electric fleets we outline a framework and explain algorithmic concepts. Finally, we derive recommendations for stakeholders such as policy makers, vehicle manufacturers, service providers and corporate fleet operators.The statistical analyses show that highest potentials for battery electric vehicles are according to NACE nomenclature in Wholesale and retail trade, Service and Human health sector. The survey revealed that driving range of battery electric vehicles already comply daily mileage requirements with a high extent within Germany nursing companies and pharmacies. Furthermore, the attitude of the interrogated fleet managers towards the use of BEV is mostly positive but detailed knowledge about BEV and driving patterns of the own vehicles is lacking. Finally, the GPS data tracking could proof high potentials for BEV in these economic sectors.

Eco‐driving strategies in battery electric vehicle use – how do drivers adapt over time?

Eco-driving is of high importance when driving battery electric vehicles (BEVs) in terms of prolonging the vehicle's limited range. A longitudinal field study with 40 participants was conducted to examine which eco-driving strategies users know before and after driving a BEV for 3 months. Furthermore, participant's knowledge regarding eco-driving strategies with BEVs against internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs) was compared. After 3 months of BEV usage, a driving test was applied in order to investigate the strategies drivers apply to drive energy efficiently and to estimate the effectiveness of these strategies. Results reveal that reported eco-driving strategies for BEVs and ICEVs differ significantly. Users reported significantly more BEV eco-driving strategies after experiencing the BEV for 3 months than before. Furthermore, drivers were able to significantly reduce energy consumption by applying eco-driving strategies in the driving test. Reported eco-driving strategies proved to be effective. The results imply that eco-driving strategies for ICEVs have to be adapted for BEV eco-driving and that drivers gain a deeper understanding of factors that influence energy consumption by experiencing the BEV for a longer period of time. Based on the results, support of the driver through training or assistance systems is recommended.

Erratum: ‘Eco‐driving strategies in battery electric vehicle use – how do drivers adapt over time?’

Erratum: ‘Eco‐driving strategies in battery electric vehicle use – how do drivers adapt over time?’

Analysis of low carbon super credit policy efficiency in European Union greenhouse gas emissions

In this paper we address the current European Union's support policy for BEV (battery electric vehicles) manufacturing under the Super-credit modality, and its actual relationship with the reduction of carbon emissions derived from the use of battery electric vehicles (BEV). Particularly, we have estimated the BEV associated carbon emissions through the method provided by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In this sense, we have employed a BEV model to investigate the BEV emissions by country in the EU according to the regional electricity mix. We additionally have accounted for the particularities of real-world driving, which further affects the results. We have employed a measure of driving aggressiveness by modifying the standard benchmarking driving cycle fostered by the European Union and of necessary application by vehicle manufacturers—the NEDC—to show that BEV emissions are not negligible when compared with internal combustion vehicles; mainly in urban environments.On the whole, in this paper we provide a revision framework of the Super Credits meant to support the increase of the BEV fleet in the European Union. In its current form, the Super-credits support policy is a constant ratio depending on the manufactured internal combustion vehicles. We claim, however, that they should depend on the BEV recipient country instead. By revising the European electricity mix, we demonstrate for instance that countries such as Poland, though indirectly, largely exceed the allowed limits of CO2 emissions derived from the upstream generation of electricity required to load the BEV.

Multi-Methodology Modeling and Design of Lithium-Air Cells with Aqueous Electrolyte

Metal-air batteries are being investigated as alternative to state-of-the-art lithium-ion batteries for mobile and stationary applications due to their higher specific energy and potentially lower cost. Modeling and simulation techniques allow a better understanding and improvement of the complex mechanisms and properties of metal-air batteries. We present simulation results of a lithium-air (Li/O2) battery with aqueous alkaline (LiOH) electrolyte using three different methodologies, (i) Lattice-Boltzmann modeling on the porous electrode scale, (ii) multi-physics continuum modeling on the single-cell scale and (iii) system simulation of a Li/O2-battery-powered electric vehicle. Different cell designs (porous separator, stirred separator, and redox-flow design) are investigated in order to quantitatively assess their performance. Virtual aqueous lithium-air batteries yielded high specific energy (up to 755 Wh/kg), but considerably uncompetitive specific power, which prohibit the use in battery electric vehicles at the present stage of development.

Optimizing the Use of Electric Vehicles in a Regional Car Rental Fleet

The use of battery electric vehicles (BEVs) is increasing in household vehicle fleets and carsharing systems. However, the car rental industry has only timidly adopted this technology. This paper presents a mathematical model for optimal trip assignment of electric and conventional vehicles (CVs) in a regional car rental company. The model was built by using a time–space network, and all BEV charging constraints were part of the formulation. The model needed to satisfy all existing demand, and two objectives were considered: maximizing the number of trips by BEVs and maximizing profit. The model was applied to the Portuguese central region, and the conclusion was that BEVs were considerably less profitable than CVs, because BEVs were less useful for intercity trips. Even if the costs and revenues were the same as for CVs, BEVs were still outperformed by CVs because the recharging time was a drawback in some trips. However, BEVs do not necessarily imply a financial loss for the companies, and a cost–benefit analysis may well prove the existence of considerable profit from including these vehicles, because marketing and environmental effects are not being valued at the moment.

04/02097 Greenhouse gas emissions in Norway: do carbon taxes work?: Bruvoll, A. and Larsen, B. M. Energy Policy, 2004, 32, (4), 493–505

In this paper we address the current European Union's support policy for BEV (battery electric vehicles) manufacturing under the Super-credit modality, and its actual relationship with the reduction of carbon emissions derived from the use of battery electric vehicles (BEV). Particularly, we have estimated the BEV associated carbon emissions through the method provided by Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). In this sense, we have employed a BEV model to investigate the BEV emissions by country in the EU according to the regional electricity mix. We additionally have accounted for the particularities of real-world driving, which further affects the results. We have employed a measure of driving aggressiveness by modifying the standard benchmarking driving cycle fostered by the European Union and of necessary application by vehicle manufacturers—the NEDC—to show that BEV emissions are not negligible when compared with internal combustion vehicles; mainly in urban environments.On the whole, in this paper we provide a revision framework of the Super Credits meant to support the increase of the BEV fleet in the European Union. In its current form, the Super-credits support policy is a constant ratio depending on the manufactured internal combustion vehicles. We claim, however, that they should depend on the BEV recipient country instead. By revising the European electricity mix, we demonstrate for instance that countries such as Poland, though indirectly, largely exceed the allowed limits of CO2 emissions derived from the upstream generation of electricity required to load the BEV.