Usage Of Rules Research Articles

Graphical notations for active rules in UML and UML-A

Active rules (i.e., event condition action rules, triggers) have been put forward as a technique for reacting to important events, and thereby avoiding polling or embedding rule processing in applications. Despite the promises of active rules technology, the usage of active rules is low in practice. It has often been claimed (by database researchers) that the reason why few active rules applications have been built is due to the lack of support in analysis and design phases. Hence, there are very few notations or guidelines available for software engineers who develop active rules applications.In this paper, we propose modelling templates for UML state-charts and UML-A statecharts for how software engineers can capture the fundamentals of active rules. By following the proposed modelling templates and notations for active rules, it will be easier for software engineers to develop applications that rely on active rules technology.

Rules and Problem Solving: Another Look

College students were trained on problems similar to the water jar problems developed by Luchins (1942). Some students were instructed that a particular rule would solve all the problems, others had the same problems but were not instructed about the rule, and a third set of students had a series of novel problems in which no single rule operated throughout. In two experiments students in the instructed rule group not only performed best in training but also performed best when transferred to a condition in which a single novel rule was appropriate. Although results from the set of conditions most similar to those of Luchins suggested that students sometimes inappropriately persisted in rule usage, the overall results suggest that rigidity is not a necessary outcome of instructed problem solving. Indeed, many of the results were consistent with the notion that instructed problem solving is flexible problem solving.

Illustrated analysis of Rule of Four using Maple

Rule of Four, as a basic didactic principle, was formulated among the NCTM 2000 standards (see [14]) and since then it is quoted by numerous books and publications (see [4], [9], [12]). Practically we can say it is accepted by the community of didactic experts. The usage of the Rule of Four, however, has been realized mainly in the field of calculus, in fact certain authors restrict the wording of the principle to the calculus itself (e.g. [3]). Calculus is a pleasant field, indeed. A sequence of values of a function provides us with example for numeric representation, while the formula and the graph of the function illustrate symbolic and graphical representations, respectively. In the end by wording the basic features of the function on natural language we gain textual representation. This idyllic scene, however, becomes more complex when we leave the frame of calculus. In this paper we investigate the consequences of the usage of Rule of Four outside calculus. We discuss the different types of representations and show several examples which make the multiple features of representation evident. The examples are from different fields of mathematics and are created by the computer algebra system Maple, which turns out to be an excellent tool for illustration and visualization of the maim features of mathematical objects. Next we introduce the concept of basic representation and rational representation, which is considered as the mathematical notion of "didactic usable" or "didactic rational" representation. In the end we generalize the notion of numeric representation, which leads us a more widely usable didactic principle which can be considered as a generalization of Rule of Four.

Neural Correlates for the Acquisition of Natural Language Syntax

Some types of simple and logically possible syntactic rule never occur in human language grammars, leading to a distinction between grammatical and nongrammatical syntactic rules. Comparison of the neuroanatomical correlates underlying the acquisition of grammatical and nongrammatical rules can provide relevant evidence on the neural processes dedicated to language acquisition in a given developmental stage. Until present no direct evidence on the neural mechanisms subserving language acquisition at any developmental stage has been supplied. We used fMRI in investigating the acquisition of grammatical and nongrammatical rules in the specified sense in 14 healthy adults. Grammatical rules compared with nongrammatical rules specifically activated a left hemispheric network including Broca's area, as shown by direct comparisons between the two rule types. The selective role of Broca's area was further confirmed by time × condition interactions and by proficiency effects, in that higher proficiency in grammatical rule usage, but not in usage of nongrammatical rules, led to higher levels of activation in this area. These findings provide evidence for the neural mechanisms underlying language acquisition in adults.

Padrões evolutivos na utilização dos princípios de justiça distributiva em crianças e adolescentes no sul do Brasil

O presente artigo descreve uma investigação sobre o uso de princípios de justiça distributiva utilizados por crianças e adolescentes em situações hipotéticas de distribuição de recompensa. Foram entrevistadas 680 crianças e adolescentes de ambos os sexos, sendo 240 da faixa etária de cinco a seis anos, 220 de nove a dez anos e 220 de 13 a 14 anos, metade de cada sexo. O instrumento utilizado foram mini-histórias, acompanhadas de desenhos que apresentavam diferentes condições de desempenho dos personagens em diversas situações. Os resultados apontaram três estágios evolutivos, caracterizados pelo uso de regras de autoridade, igualdade e equidade. Como esperado, crianças de cinco a seis anos utilizaram predominantemente regras de autoridade e igualdade, as de nove a dez anos, regras de igualdade e, os adolescentes, regras de eqüidade. Características do uso das regras permitiram também a identificação de sub-estágios em cada estágio. A seqüência evolutiva de níveis no desenvolvimento dos princípios de justiça distributiva encontradas apoiam o modelo piagetiano.

Grammatical Correctness and Stylistic Beauty in the Qur'an

Arab grammarians sought to construct a system in which rules are universal. They relied on classification, observing conformity and difference in the language material they collected, and made conformity the basis of a given class, while disagreement distinguished one category from another. They thereby derived rules which they declared to be universal. When there were found to be restrictions on universality in a particular rule, they created a subsidiary rule, on condition that it did not entail ambiguity. However, conformity and similarity may result in multiple possibilities, which can in fact lead to ambiguity, while disagreement and difference provide distinct forms with unequivocal meanings. The grammarians had to discover indicators (qarā 'in) that point to the appropriate grammatical function in every category. They were able to isolate the following: 1. Conjoining (taḍāmm) 2. Word Order (al-rutba), whether fixed or changeable 3. Connectivity (rabṭ), by co-referencing or by concordance 4. Inflection signs (calāmāt al-icrāb) 5. Morphological patterns (al-binya) 6. Particles (al-adawāt) 7. Context (al-siyāq) It was in the light of all these, that grammarians ruled a structure to be correct or incorrect. Language, however, is much wider than grammar, and usage is not only concerned with grammatical correctness but also with stylistic considerations which can lead to departure from the grammatical rule, for instance by addition, omission, relaxation of the rule or metaphorical usage, and other features of stylistic boldness which challenge the universality of grammatical rules. The Qur'an was revealed 'in a clear Arabic tongue' before the existence of the study of grammar (naḥw). It thus embodied the force of the language, which is shown in many types of departure from the normal rules for stylistic considerations. This article considers where the Qur'an stands with regard to grammatical correctness and stylistic beauty. The article explains that the assumed universality of the rules that grammarians needed for their system is much narrower than the rich usage of the Qur'an, which does not submit to strict universality or analogy. Grammarians themselves when faced with a usage that differed from their rules were forced to overlook these or resort to reinterpretation in order to maintain universality for their rules. Such differences from the rules are seen in three important areas: 1) Features such as omission, addition, preponderance, separation or parenthesis, which do not lead to ambiguity in the statement. 2) Subsidiary rules, many of which are listed in the article. 3) Making concession in the indicators of meaning when there was no fear of ambiguity (the article lists many examples for each indicator). Such explanations show grammar to be much narrower than the language because grammar concentrated, from the beginning, on what followed the rules and avoided listing features of stylistic boldness which belong to the aesthetic aspect of the text and hence do submit to general grammatical rules. It is not surprising that quarrels often occurred between grammarians and poets, where the grammarian was armed with his universal rules, and the poet retorted with his artistic freedom, saying, ‘Our task is to say, and yours is to find suitable interpretations for what we say.’ The article then goes on to trace elements of beauty in the Qur'anic style at the level of sounds and patterns and choices of words as well as through imagery, descriptions, etc. Under each of these the author examines many examples from the Qur'an to illustrate its stylistic beauty.

The Three-Box “Paradox” and Other Reasons to Reject the Counterfactual Usage of the ABL Rule

An apparent paradox proposed by Aharonov and Vaidman in which a single particle can be found with certainty in two (or more) boxes is analyzed by way of a simple thought experiment. It is found that the apparent paradox arises from an invalid counterfactual usage of the Aharonov-Bergmann-Lebowitz (ABL) rule and effectively attributes conflicting properties not to the same particle but no different particles. A connection is made between the present analysis and the consistent histories formulation of Griffiths. Finally, a critique is given of some recent counterarguments by Vaidman against the rejection of the counterfactual usage of the ABL rule.

Mixing rules for hardsphere chain mixtures and their extension to heteronuclear hardsphere polyatomic fluids and mixtures

Mixing rules are very important for the calculation of fluid properties using different equations of state. In order to find the theoretical lead of the mixing rule for the size parameter, a mixing rule [1] for hardsphere mixtures has been proposed on the basis of Carnahan-Starling equation and Boublik-Mansoori equation. As its extension, mixing rules for hardsphere chain mixtures are proposed in this work. A mixing rule for the segment number (or chain length) is derived on the limitation of the equality of segment diameters, from the first order thermodynamic perturbation theories (TPT1) for pure chain fluids and for chain mixtures. Meanwhile, the mixing rule for the segment diameter is the same as the mixing rule for hardsphere mixtures on the limitation of monomer mixtures. The two mixing rules are checked together over wide ranges of conditions for hardsphere chain mixtures and compared with the first order thermodynamic perturbation theory (TPT1) and also with simulation data available in literature. An another interesting usage of new mixing rules is to describe the heteronuclear hardsphere polyatomic pure fluids, which consist of hardspheres with different segment diameters as in methane and ethane in which carbon and hydrogen atoms are looked as bonded spheres, and heteronuclear hardsphere polyatomic mixtures. The comparison with simulation data shows the validity of the mixing rules.

A developmental study on children's understanding of emotion and emotional self-control

The present study examined how children understand the processes concerning the strategic control of emotion. There are five components of this emergent metaemotive understanding: the children's knowledge of (1) the cues for identifying emotions, (2) the antecedents of emotions, (3) display rules, (4) the consequence of an emotional response, and (5) the strategies of emotional self-control. Five, seven and nine-year-old children were interviewed regarding their knowledge of these components. The following results were obtained. For identifying emotion, seven-year-olds tended to focus on the situational cues. Nine-year-olds were more likely to focus on the mental cues. The frequency of spontaneous usage of display rules increased with age. Nine-year-olds mentioned the cognitive self-control strategies such as re-directing their thoughts. The results were discussed in terms of developmental perspectives.

Determinants of Decision Rule Use in a Production Planning Task

A wide array of decision rules capable of significantly enhancing decision-making performance across a range of tasks has been available for many years. Unfortunately, decision makers have stubbornly resisted using them. The present research investigates factors that might encourage decision rule use. In a simulated production planning task, 157 subjects were offered the recommendations of a simple but powerful decision rule. In the base case, subjects underestimated the usefulness of the rule and were vastly outperformed by it. Two interventions aimed at increasing use of the decision rule were examined: (1) giving subjects explicit feedback comparing their performance with how well they would have done had they used the rule and (2) providing them an explicit description of the rule′s performance benefits. Feedback on performance relative to the rule substantially increased perceived usefulness of the rule, rule-usage behavior, and decision performance. Rule description had a less clear effect. There was no overall significant effect of rule description on perceived usefulness or performance, although there was a significant overall effect on two measures of rule-following behavior. This increased rule-following behavior translated into significant performance improvements for the groups not receiving feedback, but not for the groups receiving feedback. We conclude that showing decision makers the benefits of using a decision rule via explicit aggregate feedback comparing rule and non-rule performance is an effective and underutilized way to increase their perceptions of the rule′s usefulness, their use of the rule, and their decision-making performance. Explicitly describing the performance characteristics is a secondary significant determinant of rule usage, especially recommended in cases where it is not feasible to provide aggregate outcome feedback.

The impact of task complexity on information use in multi‐attribute decision making

AbstractThis study presents a process analysis of multi‐attribute decision making. The decision problems concerned the selection of the most suitable candidate for a job opening. The problems varied in terms of complexity, i.e. the number of candidates and the number of attributes used to describe these alternatives. Results show that with an increasing number of alternatives, subjects (N = 48) used fewer attributes for the evaluation of alternatives, and made, on average, less references to the alternatives. The type of judgment most often used was absolute dimensional (comparison of an attribute to an absolute standard) and was used more often at the beginning than toward the end of the decision process. Overall, judgments were predominantly positive. The percentage of positive judgments decreased with increasing complexity, and toward the end of the decision process. Significantly more judgments, particularly positive ones, concerned the finally chosen alternative as compared to the rest of the alternatives. Finally, analysis of subjects' usage of decision rules revealed that increasing the number of alternatives resulted in an increasing use of elimination strategies. Implications of these findings for the design of decision aids will be discussed.

Constructing end-user knowledge manipulation systems

The automation of knowledge acquisition for expert and decision support systems is concerned primarily with the development of more powerful tools and environments for knowledge engineers. We propose that the acquisition process might benefit from a more direct participation by the domain expert. An architecture and software toolkit, which supports the construction of end-user knowledge manipulation systems (EUKMS), is presented. EUKMS are strongly committed to an external knowledge representation at the interface which uses domain-familiar abstractions, language and objects, and maps them to an internal , computational representation which is hidden from the user. If given a predefined domain model, the implementation of elegant graphical user interfaces to knowledge bases, automatic operationalization of a user's rules as code, plus facilities to modify the rules, represent a significant advance in the development of systems which enable non-programming personnel to create and refine rules, without the mediation of a knowledge engineer.An application of the toolkit in the creation of an interface to a speech knowledge system is discussed. Our experience suggests that (i) EUKMS are achievable, (ii) may have a useful role in an integrated environment of complementary tools and techniques for knowledge acquisition, and (iii) the external knowledge representation employed in the user interface contributes to direct manipulation by the end-user and enhances computer-human communication.

Showing What People Can and Cannot Do: Human Capacity and Limitations Demonstrations

To communicate Human Factors Design Principles to audiences of computer programmers, community groups, junior college and college students, the authors have combined a set of thirteen demonstrations of Human Capabilities and Limitations into an effective, stand-alone presentation lasting from one to two hours. Each of the demonstrations and the implications of each demonstration for product design will be explained. The content areas include: Memory Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Cognitive Learning Obedience to Authority. Rule Usage Perception Adaptation Response Competition The primary goal of this paper is to provide the Human Factors Educator, Practitioner or Graduate Student with an alternative way to introduce the topic of Human Factors in one or two consolidated sessions to a variety of audiences which will be informative, popular, easy to prepare for, and very inexpensive. A secondary goal is to provide some demonstration ideas which might be used to supplement traditional classroom lectures.

Effect of written text on usage of newton's third law

AbstractThis article reports on a study that investigated novice students' rules for determining which of two objects exerted the greater force on the other. Subjects worked five paper‐and‐pencil task sets depicting different objects interacting with each other. For each situation they were asked to identify which of the two objects was exerting the stronger force on the other. Each subject worked the task sets under one of three conditions: with no aid, with a written statement describing forces as interactions that always occur in pairs, or with a written statement of Newton's third law. The vast majority of the subjects in the study used procedures (rules) which could be identified. There were significant differences in the patterns of usage of the various rules between those who received no written statement and those who received the statement of Newton's third law. The primary difference between the two groups was in the usage of a rule (All Equal) which produced the same response sequence as Newton's third law. However, only 29% of those who received the Newton's third law handout used the All Equal rule on all five task sets. There were no significant differences in usage of the All Equal rule between those who had had high school physics and those who had not. Strong evidence was found to contradict the idea that the subjects who failed to used the All Equal rule simply did not read the written statement properly. The results of this study have implications for learning from text.

Spelling Rule Usage Among Students with Learning Disabilities and Normally Achieving Students

Spelling performance of students with learning disabilities (LD) was compared with that of same-age normally achieving subjects and younger normally achieving subjects. Subjects with learning disabilities were divided into two groups: poor readers/poor spellers and good readers/poor spellers. A spelling battery was administered that included one task of phoneme-grapheme correspondence rule usage and four tasks of suffix rule usage. The groups with learning disabilities performed significantly below the same-age normally achieving group on all tasks. No significant differences among the two groups with learning disabilities and their achievement-level peers emerged in primary analyses. However, secondary analyses revealed differences in mastery of the past tense spelling rule ed, and in some subskills related to the spelling of words with suffixes. The cognitive-linguistic significance of these results is discussed.

Visual Perspective-Taking Skills in Children

The present study evaluated the effects of stimulus complexity and rule usage on a visual perspective-taking task. Preschoolers, first, third, and fifth graders, and adults were shown arrays of dolls and performed a series of perspective-taking tasks. Errors decreased with age, and more errors occurred with the more complex visual arrays. A significant number of errors were made in self-view trials, especially by the preschoolers, showing that the ability to relate an array to a pictorial representation of it is not perfect. A conditional probability analysis showed that most egocentric errors were not due to an inability to relate the array to pictorial representations, but rather to a lack of mastery of Flavell's different positions--different views rule. When the array was covered, however, even first graders showed almost perfect mastery of this rule. There were also task effects on the use of Flavell's same position--same view rule: children performed better for a task involving self and other than for 2 others. Response latencies and effects for the observer's relative position provided evidence for a new rule: opposite positions--opposite views. In addition, front and back views of the dolls were significantly easier than the side views, which suggests a role of labeling or stimulus-discrimination skills.

The classification of children's knowledge: Development on the balance-scale and inclined-plane tasks

R. S. Siegler (1981, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 46 C2, Serial No. 189) has shown that performance on several Piagetian tasks is governed by similar rule structures. The purpose of the first study was to extend his analysis to the inclined-plane task, replicate his original observations about development on the balance-scale task, and determine the consistency in children's rule usage across tasks. We found that Siegler's (1981) binary decision representations adequately characterized development on these tasks, and there was fair correspondence of rule classifications across tasks. An alternative classification procedure, used to diagnose the rules of children who failed our original classification criteria, showed that most of these children's performance patterns were very similar to Siegler's rule patterns. In the second experiment, we improved the diagnosticity of our rule-assessment protocol in light of F. Wilkening and N. H. Anderson's (1982, Psychological Bulletin, 92, 215–237) criticisms, and observed that many Rule III children's predictions were associated with those of integration rules on both tasks. Despite these methodological improvements, many children, especially 5- to 7-year-olds, evidenced use of centration and lexicographic strategies, suggesting that these classifications are not simply an artifact of problem sampling. Some of the problems associated with the classification of children's knowledge are discussed.

Rule Usage in Children's Understanding of "Big" and "Little"

RAVN, KAREN E., and GELMAN, SUSAN A. Rule Usage in Children's Understanding of Big and Little. CHILD DEVELOPMENT, 1984, 55, 2141-2150. How children interpret dimensional terms (e.g., big, little) is important to theories of semantic development. However, previous studies have yielded inconsistent results. The present study provided a more thorough test of this issue by examining 5 possible rules that children might use to interpret big and little. As shown in previous research, 4and 5-year-olds interpreted big to mean greatest height; also, they interpreted little to mean least height. Contrary to past claims, 3-year-olds used a height rule (for big and little) or a rule based on the most salient dimension (for big only). Increasing consistency in rule usage appeared to be the most significant developmental progression for children between the ages of 3 and 5 with respect to these size terms.

Rule Usage in Children's Understanding of "Big" and "Little"

Rule Usage in Children's Understanding of "Big" and "Little"

Phonological rule usage in mother-child speech

The present study examined the incidence of phonological rule usage in maternal speech to children with expressive MLUs of 1.0 to 2.5. In contrast to earlier work which found the application of optional rules such as palatalization, dental deletion, /ð/ deletion, and conversion of ts/s to be more prevalent when mothers spoke to children than when they spoke to an adult, the present study found that the latter three rules were used much less frequently in maternal speech than in adult-adult speech. Palatalization was more common in mother-child speech than in adult-adult speech, but occurred in environments in speech to children which are more condusive to rule application. Results suggest that (1) there is a need to control the variable of child addressee linguistic maturity in studies of mother-child speech, (2) maternal speech to children at very early stages of language learning is in many ways phonologically clarified, and (3) phonological modification may differ across different languages’ babytalk registers. Additionally, the patterns of rule application noted in the present study suggest that mothers alternate canonical and rule-distorted forms systematically in speech to such young children. Implications of such strategies are addressed.