US Pork Industry Research Articles

74 Characterizing Pork Color Shelf Life: Foundational Visual and Biochemical Bases of Pork Discoloration

Abstract Poor color stability limits meat shelf life, and poses an economic challenge to processors and retailers, and contributes to food waste. The US pork industry has only a limited understanding of fresh pork discoloration, with most inferences about discolored pork being extrapolated from beef discoloration studies. Despite substantial research into consumer perception, biochemical mechanisms, and economic impact of fresh beef discoloration, little is known regarding fresh pork color stability. This is problematic because of substantial differences in pork and beef myoglobin as well as discoloration traits. While discoloration in beef typically presents as a brown hue, fresh pork discoloration displays a wider range of hues, with differences in intensity and extent of discoloration. Pork-specific discoloration thresholds, as they relate to consumer acceptability, have not been defined and likely differ from beef due to the variety of discoloration hue, intensity, and extent combinations. Once discoloration in pork products has been characterized, biochemical, metabolomics, and proteomic changes between color stable and color labile products will provide information regarding a mechanistic basis for pork discoloration. Further, despite research into pre- and post-slaughter interventions to slow discoloration, it is not currently possible to predict at d 1 postmortem the inherent color persistence of pork entering the retail case 10 to 21 d later. Fundamental color stability research in pork, ranging from applied consumer perceptions to mechanistic traits, is needed to develop technologies and interventions to improve case life of color labile cuts, decrease discoloration-based profit losses, and reduce food waste.

The Canadian pork industry and COVID‐19: A year of resilience

While COVID‐19 had the potential to be extremely disruptive to the Canadian pork supply chain, the sector showed resiliency by adjusting to market changes to ensure industry continuation. Unlike other non‐agricultural firms that were mandated to close at times, the pork sector was deemed an essential service and allowed to continue operating throughout the pandemic. Evidence of this resiliency is seen in three main ways. First, market access to the United States was maintained for both live pigs and pork exports. Second, Canada not only maintained market share in global pork exports, but it also actually increased shipments because of strong demand from China caused by African swine fever. Third, the challenges of processing plant closures and labour shortages were overcome in a variety of ways including increasing interprovincial shipments and increasing live pig exports to the United States. Pork consumption on a per capita basis continued the historical downward trend, and it is expected that consumers will return to their normal consumption patterns (e.g., dining at restaurants) despite job losses. At the meat processing level, it is anticipated that there will be an acceleration in the process to automate.

Modified wean-to-finish mat as an alternative handling tool for moving grow-finish pig cadavers: A pilot study

Through the National Pork Board, the US pork industry provides recommendations for humane handling tools and acceptable non-ambulatory pig handling methods. While these recommendations are useful, there is a lack of published evidence regarding the efficacy of humane handling tools commercially available for moving non-ambulatory pigs. Wean-to-finish mats are commonly used on-farm to provide comfortable resting areas for newly weaned pigs and to minimize feed waste around feeders. The objective of this project was to test a commercial wean-to-finish mat as a humane handling tool for non-ambulatory grow-finish pigs. On-farm testing was accomplished using pig cadavers (n = 3; 135, 118, and 68 kg) to evaluate mat effectiveness based on employee effort and preference. Our results do not support wean-to-finish mats as effective handling tools for moving non-ambulatory grow-finish pigs.

Impact of porcine epidemic diarrhea on performance of growing pigs.

The impact of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDv) infection on the US pork industry has mainly been attributed to the mortality that it causes in suckling piglets, and, consequently, much effort has been invested in the quantification of its effect in sow farms. However, no information on the performance of surviving pigs that were exposed to the PEDv as piglets is available. Here, a retrospective cohort study to evaluate the impact of porcine epidemic diarrhea virus (PEDv) infection on growing pigs’ performance, as indicated by mortality, average daily gain (ADG), average daily feed intake (ADFI), and feed conversion ratio (FCR) was performed using production records from weaned pigs in nursery and wean-to-finish sites from sow farms that became PEDv-infected between May 2013 and June 2014. Production records from the first batch of growing pigs weaned in infected flows after the PEDv outbreak (“infected batches”) were compared with those from pigs weaned within the previous 14 to 120 days (“control batches”). Performance records from infected and control batches, paired by flow, were compared using non-parametric paired tests. Mortality, ADG and FCR were significantly different in PEDv-positive (infected) compared with PEDv-negative (control) batches, with a mean increase of mortality and FCR of 11% and 0.5, respectively, and a decrease of ADG of 0.16 lb/day. Our results demonstrate a poorer performance of growing pigs weaned after a PEDv outbreak compared with those weaned within the previous 14-120 days, suggesting that in addition to the mortality induced by PEDv in suckling pigs, the disease also impairs the performance of surviving pig. These findings help to quantify the impact of PEDv infection in the US and, ultimately, contribute to efforts to quantify the cost-effectiveness of disease prevention and control measures.

Price asymmetry between different pork cuts in the USA: a copula approach

The objective of this study is to assess the degree and the structure of price dependence between different cuts in the US pork industry at the retail level. To this end, it utilizes monthly retail data of pork cuts and the statistical tool of copulas. The empirical results suggest that for all pairs, retail prices are not likely neither to boom nor to crash together, even though overall dependence is quite considerable for two of the three pairs considered in this study. No evidence of asymmetric price co-movements was found.

Pork quality and the role of marketing contracts: a case study of the US pork industry

PurposeThis paper aims to provide an assessment of the growth in marketing contracts in the US pork industry as an efficient means to control pork quality and reduce transaction costs.Design/methodology/approachInformation collected from pork quality and safety summits sponsored by the National Pork Producers Council in cooperation with the National Pork Board, published surveys of large packers related to contract use, and 15 contracts submitted by producers to the Iowa Attorney General's Office from 1996 to 2001 were examined. The theoretical framework used combines branches of the industrial organization literature.FindingsThe paper provides information documenting the growing importance of addressing pork quality problems in the 1990s and how marketing contracts between packers and producers can help address these problems. Recognizes their role in reducing transaction costs associated with carcass pricing programs, reducing pork quality measuring costs, providing quality control, and reducing costs of adapting to quality uncertainty.Research limitations/implicationsThe list of contracts examined is a small collection of contracts voluntarily submitted by producers, and pertains to a specific geographic section of the USA. Thus, they may not be representative of the entire industry.Practical implicationsThe paper provides background information on quality issues faced by the US pork industry and a framework for better understanding the potential role of marketing contracts in addressing these issues.Originality/valueThis paper provides rather unique institutional background information on important changes occurring in the US pork industry in the 1990s and the role of the growth in marketing contracts in addressing related pork quality issues over time. Given the proprietary nature of specific contract terms, a small sample of long‐term marketing contracts is analyzed to better understand contract design.

The Problem with Pigs: It's Not about Bacon

In this issue of Clinical Infectious Diseases, Forgie et al [1] offer the most compelling documentation to date of the introduction of a human influenza virus into a pig herd and subsequent related influenza epidemics in both pig and human populations. Although their article could be criticized, because nasal swab specimens from pigs were not taken to prove that the virus was not already enzootic before the likely human index case, circumstances and investigational data strongly support the authors’ interpretation of the data. The event occurred at a closely monitored Canadian swine research facility, where biosecurity and laboratory support had protected the pig herd from other common swine respiratory infections. The authors’ position that this was an acute and explosive human introduction of pandemic influenza A (H1N1) virus (pH1N1) in a modern swine facility was supported by the chronology of the signs in the pigs and signs and symptoms in the swine workers, the serologic investigation in the workers, the molecular detection of pH1N1 in pigs and the workers, and the subsequent genomic comparisons of the influenza A isolates. The authors’ report is also remarkable because it demonstrates that preclinical asymptomatic shedding of influenza A virus can circumvent even our best policies and biosecurity infrastructure. As we have clearly seen with the rapid international and interspecies spread of pH1N1, nonpharmaceutical interventions may slow transmission of such novel influenza A virus strains, but in the long term, such strains beat our best efforts. The report reinforces our understanding that this particular strain is often associated with subclinical infections in both humans and pigs. The authors’ observation that 94% of pH1N1-infected pigs had no clinical signs is consistent with a recent report in which 64% of influenza A virus–naive Norwegian swine herds showed no signs of infection after pH1N1 was introduced[2]. Furthermore, pH1N1 infections in pigs are transient, and experts agree that they do not threaten the safety of meat consumption. This supports the US pork industry’s position that influenza A virus is not a substantial problem for the swine industry; infections are not reportable and, therefore, not a matter of their concern. In fact, misunderstandings of the public health risk of pH1N1 detection in pigs caused considerable fiscal damage to pork production at the beginning of the 2009 H1N1 pandemic. One can understand why the pork industry is unlikely to adapt influenza surveillance policies like those of the US poultry industry. The figure provided by Forgie et al [1] clearly documents what other reports have only hinted at—the explosive nature of viral transmission among pigs in modern, confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs). We know from limited veterinary studies of Canadian pigs that swine influenza virus strains are most prevalent in areas where large herds of pigs are densely confined [3]. This is biologically plausible, because large CAFOs with numerous pig barns have weekly introductions of young immunologically naive pigs necessary to sustain influenza A infection. Despite various biosecurity and animal husbandry measures in these large facilities (eg. ‘‘all in all out’’ cohorting), influenza A virus strains often are detected in these herds. Mathematical models and epidemiological studies of swine workers have suggested that workers can serve as a bridging population to introduce the influenza A virus strains that are being amplified in the CAFOs to their surrounding human communities [4–7]. With assumptions similar to that of the 1918 pandemic virus, Saenz et al [4] found that such bridging could markedly accelerate influenza virus Received 14 September 2010; accepted 17 September 2010. Correspondence: Gregory C. Gray, Dept of Environmental and Global Health, College of Public Health and Health Professions, University of Florida, Box 100188, Gainesville, FL 32610 (gcgray@phhp.ufl.edu). Clinical Infectious Diseases 2011;52(1):19–22 The Author 2011. Published by Oxford University Press on behalf of the Infectious Diseases Society of America. All rights reserved. For Permissions, please e-mail: journals. permissions@oup.com. 1058-4838/2011/521-0001$37.00 DOI: 10.1093/cid/ciq051

Unilateral vs. Bilateral Incentives: Evidence from the U.S. Pork Industry

The idea that individuals adapt their behaviors in response to changes in incentive systems is fundamental to most economic analysis. This paper incorporates the concept of price discovery costs into the incentive theory to offer a theoretical model and empirical evidence on the differential incentive effects of long-term contracts and spot markets. Using the US pork industry case where procuring intertemporally consistent weights of hogs have been critical to pork processors, we show why the effectiveness of unilaterally determined and posted incentive price for the hog quality by the pork packers on the intertemporal consistency erodes and why a bilateral incentive structure built through long-term hog procurement contracts is demanded, in the presence of volatile hog price and feed price movements. The MGARCH model analysis of USDA AMS data supported our hypotheses that long-term hog procurement contracts would help moderate the erosion relative to the spot markets, resulting greater intertemporal consistency of hog weights.

Review:Transport Losses in Market Weight Pigs: I. A Review of Definitions, Incidence, and Economic Impact

<h2>ABSTRACT</h2> Transport losses (dead and nonambulatory pigs) present animal welfare, legal, and economic challenges to the US swine industry. The objectives of this review are to explore 1) the historical perspective of transport losses; 2) the incidence and economic implications of transport losses; and 3) the symptoms and metabolic characteristics of fatigued pigs. In 1933 and 1934, the incidence of dead and nonambulatory pigs was reported to be 0.08 and 0.16%, respectively. More recently, 23 commercial field trials (n = 6,660,569 pigs) were summarized and the frequency of dead pigs, nonambulatory pigs, and total transport losses at the processing plant were 0.25, 0.44, and 0.69% respectively. In 2006, total economic losses associated with these transport losses were estimated to cost the US pork industry approximately $46 million. Furthermore, 0.37 and 0.05% of the nonambulatory pigs were classified as either fatigued (nonambulatory, noninjured) or injured, respectively, in 18 of these trials (n = 4,966,419 pigs). Fatigued pigs display signs of acute stress (open-mouth breathing, skin discoloration, muscle tremors) and are in a metabolic state of acidosis, characterized by low blood pH and high blood lactate concentrations; however, the majority of fatigued pigs will recover with rest. Transport losses are a multifactorial problem consisting of people, pig, facility design, management, transportation, processing plant, and environmental factors, and, because of these multiple factors, continued research efforts are needed to understand how each of the factors and the relationships among factors affect the well-being of the pig during the marketing process.

REVIEW: Animal Identification Systems in North America

<h2>ABSTRACT</h2> The threat of a livestock disease outbreak or other animal health events in North America is real. However, predicting both the timing and severity of an outbreak can be extremely difficult. Animal identification and traceability programs can help limit the spread of disease. The overall objective of this review is to evaluate and compare animal identification and traceability systems in North America. Mandated animal identification programs, which exist for Canadian cattle and sheep and Mexican cattle, are designed to control and eradicate trade-limiting diseases and to maintain or gain access to international markets. In contrast, the United States has chosen to implement the National Animal Identification System as a voluntary program for cattle, sheep, and swine. However, the US sheep industry has operated with a mandatory National Scrapie Eradication Program since 2001, and the US pork industry has independently implemented a mandatory swine premises registry, which targeted 100% compliance by December 31, 2007, and a mandatory swine identification program targeting full compliance by December 31, 2008. Likewise, the Canadian National Hog Traceability and Identification System will become a mandatory program in 2008. It is recognized that a country's ability to respond to an animal disease outbreak is greatly enhanced with the implementation of a national animal identification program.

The United States pork niche market phenomenon1

After the broad industrialization of the US pork industry, there has been a development of niche markets for export and domestic pork; that is, there is a pork niche market phenomenon. The US pork niche market phenomenon is characterized, and 2 of the major markets are explained in detail. With the Midwest's tradition of a diversified family-based agriculture and record low hog prices of the late 1990s, the conditions were conducive for this phenomenon to develop. Pork niche markets utilize various sales methods including Internet sales, local abattoir sales, direct marketing, farmer networks, and targeting to organized groups. In 2003, there were approximately 35 to 40 active pork niche marketing efforts in Iowa. The Berkshire breed is an example of a swine breed that has had a recent resurgence because of niche markets. Berkshire pork is known for tenderness and excellent quality. Berkshire registrations have increased 4-fold in the last 10 yr. One of the larger niche marketers of "natural pork" is Niman Ranch Pork, which has more than 400 farmer-producers and processes about 2,500 pigs weekly. Many US consumers of pork are interested in issues concerning the environment, food safety, pig welfare, and pig farm ownership and structure. These consumers may be willing to pay more for pork from farmers who are also concerned about these issues. Small- and medium-sized swine farmers are active in pork niche markets. Niche markets claim product differentiation by superior or unique product quality and social attributes. Quality attributes include certain swine breeds, and meat quality, freshness, taste or flavor, and tenderness. Social or credence attributes often are claimed and include freedom from antibiotics and growth promotants; local family farm production; natural, organic, outdoor, or bedded rearing; humane rearing; known origin; environmentally friendly production; and the absence of animal by-products in the feed. Niche pork markets and alternative swine production practices offer an unusual contrast to commodity pork markets and industrial confinement swine production. Because they strive to have these attributes in their product, the niche pork market producers are a distinct clientele group. If niche pork markets continue to flourish, the markets and the producers that supply them will be a viable sector in a diverse US pork industry.

Technology choice and the economic effects of a ban on the use of antimicrobial feed additives in swine rations

The use of antimicrobial feed additives (AFAs) in animal rations has come under review recently in Europe and the US. A recent evaluation of the economic impact of a ban on AFAs on the US pork industry suggests that on average changes in productivity and fixed costs would result in increased costs and prices as producers adjust to the new regulation. These effects will vary among producers. Producers with high quality management and modern buildings would experience smaller costs from a ban. Also, new marketing technologies that support traceback of product to producers and additional compensation for pork produced without AFAs allow producers to capture price premiums to compensate for higher costs resulting from reduced use of AFAs.

Outbreaks of porcine reproductive failure: Report on a collaborative field investigation

During the latter half of 1996, a series of abortion outbreaks occurred, primarily in southeast Iowa, with a clinical picture similar to Porcine Reproductive and Respiratory Syndrome (PRRS) in a naïve herd. After initial foreign animal disease investigations proved negative, a collaborative case-control study was designed. Its objectives were to describe these cases of intense reproductive failure; attempt isolation of viral agent(s), particularly postulated variant strains of PRRS virus; and identify potentialmanagement risk factors. Eligible case herds were those experiencing a current outbreak of abortion and submitting samples to one of the seven participating diagnostic laboratories. Control herds were randomly selected by the investigating veterinary medical officer from a list generated by the referring practitioner. For both case and control herds, sow blood samples and fetal tissues were collected for PRRSV serologyand multiple virus isolations, and management data were statistically analyzed to identify potential risk factors. Seventeen case and 34 control herds were enrolled between June 25, 1997 and November 10, 1998. The PRRS virus was isolated from seven cases and one control operation.Sow sera were PRRS positive on 87% of case premises and 55.7% of control premises. These results suggest that the swine abortion outbreaks beginning in 1996 were more likely due to PRRS virus than to an emerging disease. The US pork industry is vulnerable to emerging diseases, and needs to develop rapid capabilities for recognizing new infections and novel pathogens and strategies for detecting and controlling emerging diseases.

Vertical coordination in the US pork industry: Status, motivations, and expectations

In addition to horizontal consolidation at the input, production, and processing subsectors, the US pork industry is becoming more vertically aligned. The largest hog producers and pork processors were surveyed regarding their involvement in vertical coordination arrangements and their plans for future involvement in such programs. Motivation for entering these vertical agreements was examined as was the rate of adoption. Structural and regional implications of these results for the pork industry are discussed. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.