US Middle School Research Articles

HEALTHY intervention: fitness, physical activity, and metabolic syndrome results.

This study aimed to assess the effect of the HEALTHY intervention on the metabolic syndrome (Met-S), fitness, and physical activity levels of US middle-school students. Cluster randomized controlled trial conducted in 42 (21 intervention) US middle schools. Participants were recruited at the start of sixth grade (2006) when baseline assessments were made, with post-assessments made 2.5 yr later at the end of eighth grade (2009). The HEALTHY intervention had four components: 1) improved school food environment, 2) physical activity and eating educational sessions, 3) social marketing, and 4) revised physical education curriculum. Met-S risk factors, 20-m shuttle run (fitness), and self-reported moderate to vigorous physical activity (MVPA) were assessed at each time point. Ethnicity and gender were self-reported. Obesity status (normal weight, overweight, or obese) was also assessed. At baseline, 5% of the participants were classified with Met-S, with two-thirds of the males and one-third of the females recording below average baseline fitness levels. Control group participants reported 96 min of MVPA at baseline with 103 min reported by the intervention group. There were no statistically significant (P < 0.05) differences in Met-S, fitness, or MVPA levels at the end of the study after adjustment for baseline values and confounders. There were no differences in any ethnic, obesity, or ethnic × obesity subgroups for either gender. The HEALTHY intervention had no effect on the Met-S, fitness, or physical activity levels. Approaches that focus on how to change physical activity, fitness, and Met-S using nonschool or perhaps in addition to school based components need to be developed.

Mental contrasting facilitates academic performance in school children

Two brief intervention studies tested whether teaching students to mentally contrast a desired future with its present reality resulted in better academic performance than teaching students to only think about the desired future. German elementary school children (N = 49; Study 1) and US middle school children (N = 63; Study 2) from low-income neighborhoods who were taught mental contrasting achieved comparatively higher scores in learning foreign language vocabulary words after 2 weeks or 4 days, respectively. Results have implications for research on the self-regulation of commitment to solve assigned tasks in classroom settings, and for increasing academic performance in school children in low-income areas.

Linking geography to reading and English language learners’ achievement in US elementary and middle school classrooms

The GeoLiteracy for English language learners (ELLs) program is a curriculum that enhances reading and writing skills while teaching geography content for US students in kindergarten through eighth grades. The program includes 85 lesson plans that address all US national geography standards, a quarter of which address environmental issues. The program also includes methodology and materials aimed at meeting the academic needs of the growing population of ELLs in the United States. This article describes a study conducted in three US states that examined the effects of GeoLiteracy for English Language Learners on reading comprehension of third to eighth grade students. The findings reveal that reading comprehension achievement of students, especially ELLs, who used GeoLiteracy improved or maintained. Thus, offering geography education to ELLs not only promotes the discipline but also improves reading comprehension. This study uncovered a number of bureaucratic, political and philosophical issues related to the education of ELLs in the state of Arizona, which could mirror issues in other US states.

Fatness, fitness, and cardiometabolic risk factors among sixth-grade youth.

Examine whether cardiometabolic risk factors are predicted by fitness or fatness among adolescents. Participants are 4955 (2614 female) sixth-grade students with complete data from 42 US middle schools. Fasting blood samples were analyzed for total cholesterol, HDL- and LDL-cholesterol, triglyceride, glucose, and insulin concentrations. Waist circumference and blood pressure were assessed. Body mass index (BMI) was categorized as normal weight, overweight, or obese as a measure of fatness. Fitness was assessed using the multistage shuttle test and was converted into gender-specific quintiles. Gender-specific regression models, adjusted for race, pubertal status, and household education, were run to identify whether BMI group predicted risk factors. Models were repeated with fitness group and both fitness and fatness groups as predictors. Means for each risk factor (except HDL, which was the reverse) were significantly higher (P < 0.0001) with increased fatness and differed across all BMI groups (P < 0.001). Waist circumference, LDL-cholesterol, triglycerides, diastolic blood pressure, and insulin were inversely associated with fitness (P < 0.001). When both fatness and fitness were included in the model, BMI was associated (P < 0.001) with almost all cardiometabolic risk factors; fitness was only associated with waist circumference (both genders), LDL-cholesterol (males), and insulin (both genders). Other associations between fitness and cardiometabolic risk factors were attenuated after adjustment for BMI group. Both fatness and fitness are associated with cardiometabolic risk factors among sixth-grade youth, but stronger associations were observed for fatness. Although maintaining high levels of fitness and preventing obesity may positively affect cardiometabolic risk factors, greater benefit may be obtained from obesity prevention.

Life Satisfaction and Student Engagement in Adolescents

Situated within a positive psychology perspective, this study explored linkages between adolescent students' positive subjective well-being and their levels of engagement in schooling. Specifically, using structural equation modeling techniques, we evaluated the nature and directionality of longitudinal relationships between life satisfaction and student engagement variables. It was hypothesized that adolescents' life satisfaction and student engagement variables would show bidirectional relationships. To test this hypothesis, 779 students (53% female, 62% Caucasian) in a Southeastern US middle school completed a measure of global life satisfaction and measures of cognitive, emotional, and behavioral engagement at two time points, 5months apart. A statistically significant bidirectional relationship between life satisfaction and cognitive engagement was found; however, non-significant relationships were found between life satisfaction and emotional and behavioral student engagement. The findings provide important evidence of the role of early adolescents' life satisfaction in their engagement in schooling during the important transition grades between elementary and high school. The findings also help extend the positive psychology perspective to the relatively neglected context of education.

Adaptations and Continuities in the Use and Design of Visual Representations in US Middle School Science Textbooks

Visual representations are ubiquitous in modern‐day science textbooks and have in recent years become an object of criticism and scrutiny. This article examines the extent to which changes in representations in textbooks published in the USA over the past six decades have invited those critiques. Drawing from a correlational analysis of a corpus of 34 US middle school physical science textbooks, continuities are established with respect to the purposes that most textbook images serve and the numbers of schematic representations that are used. Changes are observed in the overall total number of representations in textbooks and in the proportion of representations that are photographic. Interpretive cases of individual representations over time are presented to further illustrate the continuities and changes that have taken place. Specifically, high‐fidelity images, such as photographs, are shown permeating or replacing schematic and explanatory images in the interest of promoting familiarization to students. This shifting emphasis toward familiarization is discussed as a specific cause for concern about quality and utility of representations in modern‐day US science textbooks.

Representational disfluency in algebra: evidence from student gestures and speech

In this investigation, we analyzed US middle school students’ (grades 6–8) gestures and speech during interviews to understand students’ reasoning while interpreting quantitative patterns represented by Cartesian graphs. We studied students’ representational fluency, defined as their abilities to work within and translate among representations. While students translated across representations to address task demands, they also translated to a different representation when reaching an impasse, where the initial representation could not be used to answer a task. During these impasse events, which we call representational disfluencies, three categories of behavior were observed. Some students perceived the graph to be bounded by its physical and numerical limits, and these students were categorized as physically grounded. A second, related, disfluency was categorized as spatially grounded. Students who were classified as spatially grounded exhibited a bounded view of the graph that limited their ability to make far predictions until they physically altered the spatial configuration of the graph by rescaling or extending the axes. Finally, students who recovered from one or more of these disfluencies by translating the quantitative information to alternative but equivalent representations (i.e., exhibiting representational fluency), while retaining the connection back to the linear pattern as graphed, were categorized as interpretatively grounded. Understanding the causes and varieties of representational fluency and disfluency contributes directly to our understanding of mathematics knowledge, learning and adaptive forms of reasoning. These findings also provide implications for mathematics instruction and assessment.

Influences on US middle school teachers’ use of environment‐based education

The term environment‐based education (EBE) describes a form of school‐based environmental education in which an instructor uses the environment as a context for integrating subjects and a source of real world learning experiences. Despite the growing body of evidence that supports the educational efficacy of this instructional approach and its grounding in high‐quality environmental education, relatively few US teachers seem to practice EBE (University of Maryland Survey Research Center 2000). In the context of encouraging more widespread adoption of this formal instructional approach, the author used survey research with a random sample of fifth–eighth grade teachers in US public schools to investigate influences on their decisions to use EBE and barriers to EBE implementation. The study also investigated how perceived influences on and barriers to EBE teachers differed from perceptions of teachers using other forms of environmental education and teachers using neither approach. Results suggest the importance of the following in teachers’ decisions to use EBE: positive environmental attitudes; environmental sensitivity; receptiveness to EBE; teaching context; and environmental literacy knowledge and skills. The influence that best discriminated between EBE teachers and teachers using other forms of environmental education was evidence of positive outcomes. The barrier that best discriminated among EBE teachers, teachers using other forms of environmental education, and teachers not using any form of environmental education was lack of training.

Teachers expanding pedagogical content knowledge: learning about formative assessment together

The present study explores the ways in which participating in a study group helped five US middle school teachers alter their construction of knowledge. The members came together to improve their knowledge on assessment for learning in response to school‐level and district‐level pressures. The analysis was a recursive review of teacher statements and actions in the study group as well as the classroom through the lens of pedagogical content knowledge. The support and collegiality of the group demonstrates how collaborative groups can develop professional growth. The examination of the data looked at how participation in a study group focused on assessment for learning changed the structure of pedagogical content knowledge for participating teachers and what components of the study group led to those changes.

Disparities in the food environment surrounding US middle and high schools

Disparities in the type and density of food retail outlets have been hypothesized as a possible cause of differential obesity rates across racial/ethnic and income groups. Several local studies have documented differences in business environments by sociodemographic neighbourhood characteristics, but no data specific for youth have been published. This study analyses the food environment surrounding all public middle and high schools in the USA. Buffers were calculated with a radius of 400 and 800 m from the main entrance of public secondary schools in the USA (n=31,622), and business establishments within those buffers were identified using InfoUSA proprietary business listings. Indicators of any convenience store, limited-service restaurant, snack store or off-licences/liquor store and counts of businesses were regressed on the proportion of students eligible for free school meals, Title I eligibility of the school, racial/ethnic composition, location and student/teacher ratio. Hispanic youth are particularly likely to attend schools that are surrounded by convenience stores, restaurants, snack stores or off-licences. This effect is independent and in addition to poverty (i.e. students eligible for free school meals or schools that are Title I eligible) or location (urban core, suburban, town, rural). The association between other racial groups and nearby businesses is weaker, with the exception of off-licences, where a higher proportion of minority groups increases the probability of off-licences in close proximity to the school. Middle schools have fewer surrounding businesses than high schools, and larger schools have fewer surrounding businesses than smaller schools. Easy availability of snacks, sodas and fast food in the immediate vicinity of a school could easily negate school food policies, especially among students who can leave campus. Surrounding food outlets could also lower the effectiveness of health education in the classroom by setting a highly visible example that counters educational messages. There are several clear differences across sociodemographic groups with, arguably, the most pernicious being the location of off-licences. These disparities may represent an important type of environmental injustice for minorities and lower-income youth, with potential adverse consequences for dietary behaviours.

Contexts for Learning: English Language Learners in a US Middle School

Within the sociocultural theoretical framework that this paper adopts, learning, including second-language learning, is conceptualised as increasing participation in a community of practice. Thus it becomes of central importance to examine the nature of the community itself and the kinds of participatory opportunities that it supports or discourages. For it is through their engagement in the specific practices of their communities that students appropriate the knowledgeable skills that these practices involve. In this paper, based on the findings of an exploratory ethnographic study conducted in a US middle school, I examine the learning opportunities created for adolescent English language learners in three different classrooms and the ways in which these students took up these opportunities. I argue that, in addition to the particular subject matter to be taught, what appears to shape the kinds of learning opportunities afforded to English language learners is: (a) teachers’ conceptualisation of the needs of second-language students; (b) the ways in which they perceive their own role in responding to these needs; and (c) the larger context of institutional practices.

Depressive Symptoms as a Longitudinal Predictor of Sexual Risk Behaviors Among US Middle and High School Students

Depressive Symptoms as a Longitudinal Predictor of Sexual Risk Behaviors Among US Middle and High School Students

State Anti-Tobacco Advertising and Smoking Outcomes by Gender and Race/Ethnicity

Objective. This paper examines overall and gender- and racial/ethnic-specific relationships between exposure to state-sponsored anti-tobacco televised advertising and smoking-related outcomes among US middle and high school students using five years of cross-sectional nationally representative data. Design. Nationally representative 8th, 10th, and 12th grade student sample data for 1999–2003 were merged with commercial ratings data on mean potential audience exposure to network and cable television anti-tobacco advertising across the 74 largest US designated market areas, resulting in a final sample size for analysis of 122,340. Associations between state-sponsored anti-tobacco televised advertising exposure and youth smoking-related beliefs and behaviours were modelled while controlling for relevant individual and environmental factors as well as other televised tobacco-related advertising. Results. Higher potential for exposure to state anti-tobacco advertising within the previous four months was generally associated with decreasing odds of current smoking across groups. In addition, such exposure was related, to varying degrees, with decreased perceptions that most/all friends smoked, stronger five-year intentions not to smoke, and increased perceived harm of smoking. These relationships appeared possibly to be weaker for Asian students. Conclusions. The results from these analyses indicate that state anti-tobacco advertising significantly relates to beneficial outcomes—especially regarding current smoking behaviour—among US youth as a whole.

A phenomenological study of Korean students' acculturation in middle schools in the USA

The purpose of this phenomenological interview study was to describe how visiting Korean students experience social adjustment and acculturation when attending US middle schools. As a result of phenomenological analysis, the essences of Korean students' social adjustment included: (1) descriptions of power struggles; (2) misconceptions of cultural differences; (3) coping behaviors; and (4) academic achievement. In conclusion, the authors argue that families and educators should strive to create an alternative form of nationalism that calls forth mutual understandings and cooperation that respects cultural dualism and negotiation.

Depressive Symptoms as a Longitudinal Predictor of Sexual Risk Behaviors Among US Middle and High School Students

The purpose of this study was to examine whether depressive symptoms are predictive of subsequent sexual risk behavior in a national probability sample of US middle and high school students. Sexually active, unmarried, middle and high school students (n = 4152) participated in home interviews in waves I and II of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, at an approximately 1-year interval. Associations between baseline depressive symptoms and sexual risk behaviors over the course of the following year were examined separately for boys and girls, adjusting for demographic variables, religiosity, same-sex attraction/behavior, sexual intercourse before age 10, and baseline sexual risk behavior. In adjusted models, boys and girls with high depressive symptom levels at baseline were significantly more likely than those with low symptom levels to report > or = 1 of the examined sexual risk behaviors over the course of the 1-year follow-up period. For boys, high depressive symptom levels were specifically predictive of condom nonuse at last sex, birth control nonuse at last sex, and substance use at last sex; these results were similar to those of parallel analyses with a continuous depression measure. For girls, moderate depressive symptoms were associated with substance use at last sex, and no significant associations were found between high depressive symptom levels and individual sexual risk behaviors. Parallel analyses with the continuous depression measure found significant associations for condom nonuse at last sex, birth control nonuse at last sex, > or = 3 sexual partners, and any sexual risk behavior. In this study, depressive symptoms predicted sexual risk behavior in a national sample of male and female middle and high school students over a 1-year period.

“Different than Us”: Othering, Orientalism, and US middle school students' discourses on Japan

This study critically examines the discourses of Japan as employed by young people in the United States. In particular, it analyses the free writings of US middle school students that were collected at three schools with different community environments (rural, urban, and suburban). The study identifies the features and styles of the discourse(s) that occur in the students' writings, examines the ways the discourse of Othering and Orientalism operate in these texts, and explores the specificity of contemporary American identity formation in relation to the imaginary boundary between Japan (“them”) and the United States (“us”).

Physical Activity Preference of Middle School Students

1790 Literature shows that one of the most important principles for lifelong physical activity is that physical activity programs for young people are most likely to be effective when they emphasize participation in activities that young students enjoy (Centers for Disease control and Prevention, 1997). Research also indicates that the middle school age is the critical time for developing lifelong physical activity. Middle school boys and girls both differ and agree on their interests for specific physical activities in US (e.g., Greenwood, Stillwell, and Byars, 2001). However, it is not clear whether the countries with different culture, east and west culture for example, show the same patterns of the development of lifelong physical activity at the critical age. PURPOSE: To investigate the similarity and difference of the physical activity preference of middle school students in US and Korea, and to discuss the implications of the physical activity preference for middle school children. METHODS: Two data sets were collected based on 23 common physical activities in middle schools in US and Korea (the Activity Interest Inventory (AII), Greenwood et al., 2001). In the US data, 751 middle school boys (388) and girls (363) from a mid-southern state completed the Activity Interest Inventory AII survey form. The Korean data were collected from a random sample of middle school students in Seoul (n = 779, 392 boys and 387 girls). The participants were asked to respond by indicating whether they had a strong interest, were undecided, or had little interest in each of the activities. The compositional data analysis and the CODA program (Aitchison, 1986; Liu & Zhu, 2002) were used to investigate the physical activity patterns of US and far east middle school children and identify the similarities and differences of the physical activity preferences. RESULTS: In general, the results showed that the US middle school children are more interested in physical activities than the children in Korea (Loglikelihood ratio = 90.25, p<0.01). The preference pattern of the US middle school girls was significantly different from their peers in Korea (Loglikelihood ratio = 67.35, p<0.01), and so was the preference pattern of the boys (Loglikelihood ratio = 77.35, p<0.01). CONCLUSION: The lower preference to most of the physical activities in Korea middle school children may suggest that physical educators and administrators in Korea may need more effort to promote the physical activities to middle school age children.

What Do Communicative Foreign Language Teachers Do? Comparing Communicative and Non-communicative Approaches in US Middle School Classrooms

What Do Communicative Foreign Language Teachers Do? Comparing Communicative and Non-communicative Approaches in US Middle School Classrooms

The relationship between school characteristics and the availability of mental health and related health services in middle and high schools in the United States.

Problems related to mental illness are increasingly becoming the focal point of public concern over the safety and performance of schools, yet little is known about the availability and quality of school-based mental health services in the United States. In this article it is estimated that approximately 50% of US middle and high schools have any mental health counseling services available onsite and approximately 11% have mental health counseling, physical examinations, and substance abuse counseling available on-site. There are substantial differences in mental health counseling availability by region, urbanicity, and school size, with rural schools, schools in the Midwest and South regions, and small schools being least likely to offer mental health counseling. Multivariate estimates suggest that disparities between schools in the availability of mental health counseling and related health services may be partly explained by differences in access to Medicaid for financing of health services provided at school.

Promoting effective helping behavior in peer-directed groups

Collaborative peer learning environments have received increasing attention in classrooms due to the potential for improving learning and achievement. Yet previous research shows that not all students benefit from the collaborative experience. This paper explores the nature of helping behavior within peer-directed small groups that may be most effective for learning, especially for students who have difficulty with the material. Drawing on examples from recent research on student learning in collaborative mathematics classrooms in a US middle school, we identify student behaviors that are necessary for effective help seeking and help giving, as well as responsibilities of teachers in establishing classroom conditions that bring about effective helping behavior. The findings show that effective help seekers ask precise questions, persist in seeking help, and apply the explanations received; effective help givers provide detailed explanations of the material as well as opportunities for help recipients to apply the help received, and monitor student understanding. These critical helping behaviors reflect the constructivist views embodied in Piagetian and Vygotskian perspectives on learning in social contexts.