US Campus Research Articles

Barriers and facilitators to recovery among college students without access to a collegiate recovery program

Background Undergraduate students pursuing substance use recovery face multiple barriers, including widespread substance use on campus, stigma, and limited support. A small number of campuses have collegiate recovery programs to support students. Most students in recovery lack access to such programming, and little research has explored their experiences. Methods This study, framed by the recovery capital perspective, utilized thematic analysis to illuminate students’ experiences in recovery without a collegiate recovery program on a Midwestern US campus. Seventeen students participated in semi-structured interviews. We sought to understand the barriers to recovery these students faced and how students overcame them. Results Barriers exemplified limited or negative recovery capital. Students described substance use and mental health challenges, being overwhelmed with responsibilities, feeling isolated, and negative twelve-step group experiences. Students gained personal recovery capital by mobilizing personal strengths, coping, and self-care strategies. To build family/social capital, they engaged various supports (e.g. mutual aid or activist groups). Community capital was limited to campus counseling services or supportive professors. Notably, not all students chose abstinence. Conclusion This study augments the literature about how students in recovery overcome barriers without a collegiate recovery program. Universities should offer services to accommodate the range of recovery preferences and experiences.

Pedagogic tasks in digital games: Effects of feedback conditions and individual characteristics on learning request-making

We investigated the extent to which English learners developed knowledge of pragmatically-appropriate request-making forms through task-based gameplay involving virtual dialogues with fictional professors, employers, and friends on a virtual US campus. The digital game presents players with several scenarios, asking them to select the most appropriate dialogue option given a situation presented in both text and video. Depending on their dialogue choice, one of three videos plays depicting an authentic reaction to the option selected (e.g. happily accepting the request; refusing the request with dismay). Undergraduate students at a Chinese university ( n = 105) played the game involving 10 hypothetical request-making scenarios. Two versions of the game were developed. In one version, participants were only given one opportunity to watch a single reaction video while the second version allowed selection of multiple request forms and viewing multiple reaction videos. Regardless of the game version, participants improved their productive knowledge of request-making after playing the game and maintained knowledge at the delayed posttest, even though their receptive knowledge showed no improvement. Higher English proficiency had a positive impact on their immediate gains in productive knowledge, while motivation to learn English had a negative impact on receptive knowledge.

What We Learned About the Humanities from a Study of Thousands of Newspaper Articles

How might a computational analysis of the humanities in public discourse inform future efforts in humanities education and research? This question motivates this short essay; here, we reflect on key arguments from our longer article “The Humanities in Public: A Computational Analysis of US National and Campus Newspapers” with an eye toward imagining possible use cases and applications for our findings. After summarizing our main claims, we suggest ways of reframing or revaluing advocacy for the humanities based on this research. These include delineating concrete examples of the relationship between humanistic knowledge and the public interest, shifting institutional and disciplinary priorities toward forms of labor that engage a wider variety of publics, and understanding the connections between, rather than focusing on competition among, the humanities and the sciences.

The Humanities in Public: A Computational Analysis of US National and Campus Newspapers

Academic defenses of the humanities often make two assumptions: first, that the overwhelming public perception of the humanities is one of crisis, and second, that our understanding of what the humanities mean is best traced through a lineage of famous reference points, from Matthew Arnold to the Harvard Redbook. We challenge these assumptions by reconsidering the humanities from the perspective of a corpus of over 147,000 relatively recent national and campus newspaper articles. Building from the work of the WhatEvery1Says project (WE1S), we employ computational methods to analyze how the humanities resonate in the daily language of communities, campuses, and cities across the US. We compare humanities discourse to science discourse, exploring the distinct ways that each type of discourse communicates research, situates itself institutionally, and discusses its value. Doing so shifts our understanding of both terms in the phrase “public humanities.” We turn from the sweeping and singular conception of “the public” often invoked by calls for a more public humanities to the multiple overlapping publics instantiated through the journalistic discourse we examine. And “the humanities” becomes not only the concept named by articles explicitly “about” the humanities, but also the accreted meaning of wide-ranging mentions of the term in building names, job titles, and announcements. We argue that such seemingly inconsequential uses of the term index diffuse yet vital connections between individuals, communities, and institutions including, but not limited to, colleges and universities. Ultimately, we aim to show that a robust understanding of how humanities discourse already interacts with and conceives of the publics it addresses should play a crucial role in informing ongoing and future public humanities efforts.

683. Cost Calculator for Mass Vaccination Response to a US College Campus Outbreak of Serogroup B Meningococcal Disease

BackgroundUS college students are at increased risk for serogroup B meningococcal disease (MenB). MenB caused ~57% of meningococcal disease cases among 16- to 23-year-olds in 2016, and was responsible for 10 US college outbreaks from 2011−2017 involving 41 cases and an at-risk population of ~182,000 enrolled undergraduates. Outbreaks cause disruptive anxiety among university communities and implementing a mass vaccination response imposes an often unforeseen financial burden. This study aimed to enumerate costs incurred during a points-of-dispensing, mass vaccination response to a US campus MenB outbreak.MethodsThe 2015 MenB outbreak at Providence College was used as a case study to develop an Excel-based (Microsoft, Redmond, WA) cost calculator to capture costs and resources associated with a MenB outbreak response. The calculator has user-modifiable inputs related to the vaccine-eligible population, accounts for each vaccination event and vaccine dose (Figure 1), and estimates direct costs (2016 USD) during 18 months post-outbreak. Potential/expected costs computed (assuming 100% vaccine coverage) were compared with estimated actual costs incurred during the outbreak, using a micro-costing approach.ResultsThe estimated total cost for full vaccination of 4,795 eligible individuals was $1,798,399 ($375.06/person); based on actual vaccinations received, the cost calculator computed $1,350,963 in aggregate direct costs ($636.05/person fully vaccinated) (Table 1). In both analyses, medical supplies were the majority of costs (88–89%), followed by labor resources (7–9%).ConclusionThis cost calculator quantifies the direct cost of a mass vaccination response to one campus MenB outbreak. Although the cost estimates herein are higher than previously reported, the calculator does not account for follow-up costs or productivity losses and therefore underestimates the true economic burden of a campus MenB outbreak. This outbreak response cost calculator can be used to aid in response planning and highlights the need to shift the public health response from outbreak control to prevention by proactive, pre-emptive vaccination using available licensed meningococcal vaccines.Figure 1.Timeline of vaccination clinicsDisclosures E. M. La, RTI Health Solutions (RTI-HS): Employee and RTI-HS is an independent scientific research organization which was retained pursuant to a contract with Pfizer to conduct the research services which are the subject of this presentation/abstract., Salary and The RTI-HS employees who worked on this project did not receive compensation from Pfizer or any other organization, other than RTI-HS salaries.. S. E. Talbird, RTI Health Solutions (RTI-HS): Employee and RTI-HS is an independent scientific research organization which was retained pursuant to a contract with Pfizer to conduct the research services which are the subject of this presentation/abstract., Salary and The RTI-HS employees who worked on this project did not receive compensation from Pfizer or any other organization, other than RTI-HS salaries.. J. Fain, Pfizer Inc.: Employee at time of Study and Employee, Salary. L. Huang, Pfizer: Employee and Shareholder, Salary and Stocks. A. Srivastava, Pfizer: Employee and Shareholder, Salary and Stocks.

The West Bank “Alternative Peace Movement” and its transnational infrastructure: a case study in “primordialist universalism”

ABSTRACTThis article provides an overview and theorization of the “Alternative Peace Movement” (APM), a transnational education and advocacy network based in the West Bank. Emerging in the troubled context of current Israel-diaspora relations and US campus politics, the APM promotes a syncretic Jewish identity narrative and boundary-crossing political programme. Drawing on a content and discourse analysis of the movement’s online documentation, as well as interviews with movement leaders, participants, and allies, the article outlines the APM’s infrastructure and discourse, and provides an historical backdrop and set of theoretical tools for rendering comprehensible the movement’s seeming contradictions and incoherencies. It describes the APM as a case study in “primordialist universalism,” a political orientation that aims to pursue civic and human rights of a universal character by inhabiting a “hard” ethnonational subjectivity and discursive frame. The concept of primordialist universalism offers social scientists a tool for making sense of hybrid social phenomena that confound traditional categories of political analysis.

Logging you, Logging me

Low cost digital cameras in smartphones and wearable devices make it easy for people to automatically capture and share images as a visual lifelog. Having been inspired by a US campus based study that explored individual privacy behaviours of visual lifeloggers, we conducted a similar study on a UK campus, however we also focussed on the privacy behaviours of groups of lifeloggers. We argue for the importance of replicability and therefore we built a publicly available toolkit, which includes camera design, study guidelines and source code. Our results show some similar sharing behaviour to the US based study: people tried to preserve the privacy of strangers, but we found fewer bystander reactions despite using a more obvious camera. In contrast, we did not find a reluctance to share images of screens but we did find that images of vices were shared less. Regarding privacy behaviours in groups of lifeloggers, we found that people were more willing to share images of people they were interacting with than of strangers, that lifelogging in groups could change what defines a private space, and that lifelogging groups establish different rules to manage privacy for those inside and outside the group.

Shaping the future of a globalized world

Purpose– The purpose of this paper is to understand how everyday cross-cultural interactions affected the adjustment of undergraduate international students attending a private university in the northeastern United States of America.Design/methodology/approach– Data were collected primarily through interviews with nine international students and observations at “Eastern University”. Students were purposively selected to balance gender and world regions. Analysis used constant comparison until findings emerged, which were member-checked with study participants (Merriam, 2009).Findings– Findings show that the impact of university diversity initiatives for promoting everyday cross-cultural interactions is described as creating an us/them divide, promoting solidarity and establishing a cultural presence. It is concluded that formal university events foster recognition of the campus diversity international students help provide, but their impact on everyday cross-cultural interactions is both positive and negative. Additionally, the mode by which undergraduate international students are introduced to their US campus affects their integration and future interaction patterns.Research limitations/implications– Further research is needed to explore higher education institutions (HEIs)’ connection to human resource development (HRD) for shaping the future global arena. Studies that address the continuum from higher education to the workforce are needed to prepare the next generation of professionals for a global world. This study is limited due to small sample size. Findings are not generalizable in a statistical sense, but HRD professionals in HEIs may compare the details in this study with their own institutions.Originality/value– This study contributes to the discussion of national HRD by addressing international students and their insights into how diversity programs impact adjustment in an American setting. Additionally, organizational and faculty development initiatives in academic institutions can be improved by understanding the insights found in this study.

Intercultural Interactions Outside the Classroom: Narratives on a US Campus

This study provides a picture of the interactional experiences between domestic and international undergraduate students outside the classroom on a US campus. Based on 9 focus group sessions, 8 distinctive themes emerged as a result. The study revealed some similarities but many differences between domestic and international students, illuminating the lack of and barriers to intercultural learning. The findings highlight the challenges and opportunities currently faced on US campuses, thereby making a timely contribution to efforts at developing students’ readiness to be successful in a global and multicultural environment.

Associations of Weight Status, Social Factors, and Active Travel Among College Students

Background: Active travel (AT) is associated with various health benefits and may help prevent the decline in physical activity during college years. Purpose: The purpose of this study was to examine the relationship of several factors with AT to campus by weight status. Methods: Students at a large northeastern US campus completed an online survey about demographics, height/weight, frequency and mode of travel to/around campus, and environmental influences for travel choices. Participants were dichotomized into healthy weight ( < 25 kg/m2, n = 552, 72.3%) and overweight ( ≥ 25 kg/m2, n = 211, 27.7%) categories. Descriptive and inferential analyses examined relationships and differences between weight categories. Logistic regression models examined the associations with demographic, psychological, residential, social, and environmental variables with participation in AT. Results: Participants were primarily white (85.3%) and female (62.7%). Healthy weight students were more likely to report AT to campus and AT as their primary mode of travel on campus compared to overweight students. Discussion: These findings provide insight on the association of weight status with environmental and community influences for AT and identifies possible targets for intervention. Translation to Health Education Practice: College health educators can use these findings to set relevant policy and environment goals to target student AT participation.

One-Way Tickets: Writers and the Culture of Exile by Alicia Borinsky

One-Way Tickets: Writers and the Culture of Exile by Alicia Borinsky Trinity University Press, 2011. 223 pages Alicia Borinsky's paternal grandmother arrived in Argentina in 1919, escaping the pogroms in Russia. Along with the family images in her grandmother's apartment, which spoke of genealogies, the young Alicia was particularly captivated by large, gleaming silver samovar on the living-room sideboard. The samovar conjured up in the young girl's imagination of heroic flights from persecution, of past wealth, of closed Jewish communities in other lands. Her father, who adapted to life in the city of Buenos Aires with amused irony, was still drawn three times week to his mother's living room: He went for the tea poured from the samovar, the homemade jellies, Russian stories (3). But for Alicia Borinsky came the awareness that these of homeland and exile were just that, stories, tales: understood the message of the samovar. It stood silently on the sideboard warning me not to trust her. Exile, I learned very early on, was about telling (3-4). How then to tell story that might make sense of these displacements? For several pages of her introductory chapter, it seems Borinsky might be opting for memoir in the style, say, of the Mexican writer Margo Glantz's The Family Tree (1981). Or, more politically, that she might be contributing to contemporary Argentine memory debates--by Hugo Vezzetti, Elizabeth Jelin, and others--that look to analyze the massacres that took place under recent Argentine in the light of studies of the Holocaust. There are references to Borinsky's maternal grandfather who arrived in Argentina in 1934 and later sent for his children. Borinsky s mother was the last family member to make it out of Poland in 1936, while others remained and were killed: learned only recently that all the Jews of their town, Slonim, perished (4). Her grandfather exhorted her to study and learn languages, as both way both to broaden her horizons and also potential passport to flee persecution. Borinsky states that his advice was prophetic when, as young adult, she left Argentina to escape its bloody dictatorships (7). But she soon rejects autobiography as her storytelling mode, even though traces of the first person remain throughout her text and reappear, most significantly, halfway through the study, when she describes her move from Buenos Aires to New York. The movement between Buenos Aires and Europe, in particular Paris, informs many Argentine travel accounts from the nineteenth century to the present. Borinsky traces different personal journey, from Buenos Aires to the East Coast of the United States, in which New York replaces Paris as the site of cultural dynamism, exile, and migration stories. Throughout her book, Borinsky inserts modest autobiographical references that speak to productive relationship with many of the writers she considers: here is someone who knows the dining table habits and literary preferences of the Argentine writers Adolfo Bioy Casares and Silvina Ocampo; who can describe the grain of Borges's voice; who can be told by the exile Cuban writer, Reinaldo Arenas, that her early study of his work, published in 1974, helped him to break out of isolation in Cuba and find receptive international audience. Critical theory plays an even smaller part in Borinsky's account than does direct autobiography. Other authors might feel tempted to offer meta-theoretical account of the nature of exile in cultural texts. But at least two of Borkinsky's chosen writers, Isaac Bashevis Singer and Vladimir Nabokov, warn against such an approach, for they depict theories that are found to be incomplete. Singer's scholars grapple with thoughts that do not help them organize their lives (117), while the US campus of Nabokov's Pnin offers a circuit of lectures and foreign culture discussions . …

Detecting Spam Zombies by Monitoring Outgoing Messages

Compromised machines are one of the key security threats on the Internet; they are often used to launch various security attacks such as spamming and spreading malware, DDoS, and identity theft. Given that spamming provides a key economic incentive for attackers to recruit the large number of compromised machines, we focus on the detection of the compromised machines in a network that are involved in the spamming activities, commonly known as spam zombies. We develop an effective spam zombie detection system named SPOT by monitoring outgoing messages of a network. SPOT is designed based on a powerful statistical tool called Sequential Probability Ratio Test, which has bounded false positive and false negative error rates. In addition, we also evaluate the performance of the developed SPOT system using a two-month e-mail trace collected in a large US campus network. Our evaluation studies show that SPOT is an effective and efficient system in automatically detecting compromised machines in a network. For example, among the 440 internal IP addresses observed in the e-mail trace, SPOT identifies 132 of them as being associated with compromised machines. Out of the 132 IP addresses identified by SPOT, 126 can be either independently confirmed (110) or highly likely (16) to be compromised. Moreover, only seven internal IP addresses associated with compromised machines in the trace are missed by SPOT. In addition, we also compare the performance of SPOT with two other spam zombie detection algorithms based on the number and percentage of spam messages originated or forwarded by internal machines, respectively, and show that SPOT outperforms these two detection algorithms.

The Academic Aural/oral Difficulties Taiwanese ESL Students Experience on the US Campus and Their Coping Strategies to Improve Related Proficiency

This qualitative study examines the academic aural/oral difficulties Taiwanese ESL students experience on the US campus and the coping strategies they use in improving related proficiency. They are discussed within a framework of input/interaction/output theory, socio-cultural theory, and from perspectives of affective factors in second language acquisition. The research questions include: What challenges does participation in classroom discussion present? How do students exploit the all English environment to gain the sought-after proficiency? What problems are there in acquiring communication opportunities in the environment? Participants in this study were four Taiwanese graduate students majoring in special education, business, linguistics, and electronics engineering at the University of Kansas. Their stays on campus vary from four months to more than three years. Data are collected through semi-structured interviews, which are recorded and transcribed for analysis that results in four dimensions: Personal attributes, environmental impacts, difficulty types, and strategy repertoire. There are further subcategorized into: background effects, motivation & attitude effects, environmental advantages, impeding situations, linguistic deficiency, content & cultural barriers, strategies to overcome difficulties, and strategies to gain communication opportunities. The main difficulties Taiwanese ESL students experience include insufficient vocabulary and basic listening/speaking skills, lack of background knowledge about the current American society, and being shy from risk-taking in spontaneous discussions. The strategies to cope with such difficulties contain making the most of the environment to improve basic competence, taking an active role in social participation, and engaging in adequate preparation for class meetings.

Factors affecting the adoption of an e‐assessment system

A case study was conducted in 2006–07 to explore how one US campus implemented a centralised e‐assessment system. The study specifically measured the extent of adoption by faculty members, identified their reasons for adoption and evaluated the impact on teaching and learning. The purposes of the system, entitled researching learning (REAL, a pseudonym), were to measure student learning, meet accountability requirements and assist the university in becoming a learning organisation. An electronic database included programme assessment plans, results and sample instruments. The system also included a peer review process to improve plans by an assessment committee of faculty and administrators.

Seeing Beyond: Visual Approaches in Global Learning

Visual methods and theories are no longer only relevant to filmmakers, media critics, photographers, communication researchers, and self-identified visual anthropologists. Increasing numbers of people acknowledge the broader role that visual approaches play within fieldwork, research, social critique, and cultural representation (Pink 2006). Fewer, however, consider the significance of the visual in teaching and learning, and how visual approaches allow us to teach what culture and global awareness really is. Whether in a classroom on a US campus or during an international service-learning program in Jamaica, visual frameworks guide students to trace linkages and challenge constructs and, thus, provide the competencies necessary for cultural and global understanding.

Culture Shock and Social Support: An Investigation of a Chinese Student Organization on a US Campus

Previous research has explored common dimensions of culture shock across groups of international students, examined factors influencing intercultural adjustment of individual sojourners, and in the meantime, suggested that communicating with same culture members is minimally helpful for intercultural adjustment. By investigating a Chinese student organization on a US campus and analyzing the qualitative data collected via multiple methods, the researcher found that (a) culture shock is contextually based; (b) a student organization can play an instrumental role in helping students to cope with culture shock and gain intercultural competence by providing social support; and (c) communicating with same culture members can help intercultural adjustment. Implications for international student orientation, study abroad programs, and community-based help programs for international students are discussed.

Into the Wadi (review)

Reviewed by: Into the Wadi Lisa Suhair Majaj Into the Wadi Michele Drouart. Fremantle, Western Australia: Fremantle Arts Centre Press, 2000 It is not an easy feat to capture the complexity of moving between worlds, of weaving a life out of the strands of cultural difference. Narratives that seek to portray such encounters often founder on cultural reductionism. In contrast, Into the Wadi offers a contemplative, unstereotypical look at the complexities of cross-cultural experience. Australian-born Drouart was studying in the US when she fell in love with Omar (a pseudonym), a Muslim Jordanian from the village of Kufr Soum. Into the Wadi recounts the series of visits she made to Jordan as she decided whether or not to marry Omar and stay in Jordan. Instead of a straightforward memoir, the book offers a discontinuous series of vignettes structured around a wedding she and Omar attended at a time when their own marriage, which ultimately ended, was in doubt. Weaving back and forth from the moment of the wedding to other experiences and scenes, Drouart provides a textured sense of life in Jordan and of the intricate process of learning to live in another culture. Yet, although dense with cultural data, the book is not an anthropological expose. Rather, it keeps at the foreground Drouart's own role as observer and participant in a culture she found different and difficult but clearly still loves. Drouart's starting point, to her credit, is her own Orientalism. Early on, she admits to always having been fascinated by difference: "To be the [End Page 137] other, or as close as you can come: this was the way to know the world, to be alive" (39). And she admits to having romanticized Omar "in all the Orientalist ways" (193), but she also understands that difference is negotiated through the structures that predetermine our knowledge of the other. Her book is an attempt to break through those structures, to put into words a more intimate knowledge not confined by the perceptions so often used to rationalize imperialist agendas. This is not an easy task. As she observes partway through her narrative, "I have come up against a wall, a wall of words, an opaqueness that prevents the people here from carrying their own story. Snatches and fragments handed down by the Western generations before me…stack themselves up independently of my wishes." Her book is her attempt to find "the chink, where I can tap and tap to find my way through…then the wall will be strewn in fragments" (114). Even before she met Omar, Drouart had begun to understand that difference is in the eye of the beholder. Early in the narrative she describes the reactions of international students to life in the US, a country they were expected to admire but whose culture they often found dehumanizing. In a poignant passage she describes an African student who could not adjust to the isolation of American life and who ultimately committed suicide. In contrast, the closeness that the international students at her US campus so desperately long for is precisely what she herself finds most difficult in village life. In Kufr Soum, the solitude she craves—to write, to read, to contemplate—is not only discouraged but at times "perceived as an aberration…like an illness, or a shameful luxury" (90). Similarly, she learns that concepts of private possession are culturally defined. In one episode, her sisters-in-law borrow her good blouses without permission; while Drouart is furious at the violation, they cannot understand her reaction: after all, she was not using them, and they put them back unharmed. The incident, eventually resolved with laughter, becomes one more piece of the puzzle of community relationships in Jordan. If individual rights and freedom are at times curtailed, this is countered by the immense care and concern and warmth that envelops each individual and which Drouart recognizes as the most valuable aspect of life in Kufr Soum. Indeed, the conundrum at the heart of Drouart's experience is the fact that every coin has two sides: there is no experiencing one without [End Page 138] the other. As she writes, "All I most...

Intercultural Friendship: Five case studies of German students in the USA

Foreign students abroad often complain about a lack of friendships with host nationals. Since little research is available on the subject of intercultural friendship, this qualitative study was conducted to explore the friendship experiences of German students on a US campus. In-depth interviews revealed that all informants struggled with cultural differences concerning friendship formation. Most prominently, the different category width of the word 'friend' and the extent of public and private personality layers in the two cultures caused confusion and misunderstandings. In addition, some students employed different standards in describing Americans in general and their friends in particular. Overall, students were content with their friendship experiences in the USA, contradicting the common portrayal of intercultural friendship in the USA.

Farm Boy from the Edge of the Arctic and the Seduction of Feminist Pedagogy in American Academia

Abstract The article assumes that pedagogical decisions are not merely the result of the educator's personal choice or her/his serious and rational curriculum planning; rather, they occur through the interrelation of coincidences, structural issues, political and institutional discourses, and events in people's lives. The article focuses upon the politics of progressive pedagogy as they concern my work on a US campus (as a graduate student and as a teaching assistant) and my nature preservation work in the small arctic nation of Iceland. I discuss how and why I became attracted to the political potential of feminist poststructuralist theories. This is discussed in light of my supervision of mostly white young women in a teacher education programme in a large Midwestern university. I consider the institutional strength of the discourse on classroom management, grounded in curriculum taxonomy and educational psychology, over environmental education and feminist and critical pedagogy. These issues are examined in relation to my struggle to make a liveable reality for myself as a teaching assistant; after all, pedagogical decisions are usually pragmatic solutions (strategies) to immediate problems. I tell the story of one man's pedagogical decision‐making process and trajectory of identity formation in which personal history, political beliefs, discursive and institutional power, and immediate problems interact. The article unfolds in several layers: narrative stories about the feminist party in Iceland (Kvennalistinn), my work as a ranger in Iceland, and my work as a teacher in Iceland and the USA; the trajectory of me working through issues of feminist theories and my practice as a teacher during my stay in the USA (that is, identity formation); and a postscript concerned with pedagogical and academic implications of the story that is presented.

The postdoctoral research associate–instructor

OVER TWO YEARS AGO Richard Martin described some problems that have developed around the “superscholar” or postdoctorate on the US campus. He noted that the usefulness of the postdoctorate to society is being questioned, and many suspect that the appointment simply serves as a haven for professional students who contribute relatively little to society, or who in one way or another are delaying a useful and permanent adjustment to society.