Urban Water Sector Research Articles

Identifying Water–Energy–Carbon Links in Urban Water Sectors: A Case Study of Incheon Metropolitan City, Republic of Korea

Water and energy are essential resources for human life, and carbon emissions (CEs) occur in tandem with their use. Thus, water, energy, and carbon are closely inter-related. Approximately 4% of the global energy is used in urban water sectors (UWSs), which encompass various processes such as water intake, treatment, and distribution and wastewater collection and treatment, all of which consume significant energy and emit CO2. Several countries are actively working toward achieving carbon neutrality by 2050–2060. Therefore, increasing energy efficiency and reducing CEs through comprehensive evaluations of UWSs is essential. This study aimed to quantify energy consumption and CEs in UWSs and proposed a methodology for analyzing water–energy–carbon (WEC) links at the city level. By applying it to Incheon Metropolitan City (IMC), we first identified the UWSs and established a WEC database. Based on this database, the WEC consumption and emissions were analyzed by process or administrative district, and visualizations using Sankey diagrams and Geographic Information System Mapping were created to enhance their understandability. In 2021, the UWSs in IMC consumed 308,496,107 kWh of energy, representing 32.7% of the public electricity consumption of IMC, with an average energy intensity of 0.46 and 0.38 kWh/m³ for water supply systems (WSSs) and sewerage systems (SSs), respectively. Their carbon emissions totaled 315,765,358 kg CO2, accounting for 2.7% of IMC’s total carbon emissions, with an average carbon intensity of 0.21 and 0.58 kg CO2/m³ for WSSs and SSs, respectively. The proposed methodology was used to comprehensively evaluate WEC consumption and emissions in IMC. It is expected to enable relevant stakeholders to develop measures, such as water reuse and increasing renewable energy usage in water treatment and wastewater treatment plants, to build sustainable UWSs.

Assessment of non-revenue water in the urban water distribution system network in Cameroon (Central Africa)

ABSTRACT This paper aims to assess non-revenue water (NRW) in the urban water distribution system in Cameroon. The methodological approach used in this study was based on online searches using the databases such as Google Scholar, Web of Science, PubMed, and the International Water Association. These online searches have been completed through field observations and interviews with institutional and non-institutional stakeholders in the urban water sector. Results indicate that the total volume of NRW in the urban area of Cameroon was 100.26 million m3/year, which represents 52.5% of the total system input volume. About 2 million people could be supplied by cutting Cameroon's NRW to half the present level. Findings also suggest that the water utility (Camwater) practices passive leakage control, meaning that Camwater repairs only those leaks that are visible. Reducing NRW can be achieved through leakage detection and pipe replacement, pressure management, water metering, and a program to identify, remove, and replace illegal connections.

Developing a framework for effective institutional management of Ghana's urban water supply

PurposeA viable framework has been proven to reduce operational and institutional inefficiencies in the urban water supply sector. The absence of drivers necessary to develop a framework may have hindered institutional development and effective Ghanaian urban water supply management. Thus, the research aims to identify the drivers and develop a framework for effectively managing the urban water supply in Ghana.Design/methodology/approachThe study utilised a qualitative research design approach and analysed collected data to proffer answers to the research questions. The research sampled 19 participants, and saturation was achieved.FindingsFindings identified drivers for developing Ghana's urban water supply framework. They categorised them into the availability of water supply resources, the level of professionalism of the personnel, the provision of accessible quality water, the efficient management system of water supply, prudent financial management, ethics for managing water supply and the culture of managing water supply. These pertinent constructs form components of Ghana's urban water sector framework.Originality/valueBesides supporting transformation and sustainability to develop a framework for managing Ghana's urban water supply sector, policymakers may utilise the developed model to evaluate public urban water supply compliance with Ghana's water sector performance.

Utility governance, incentives, and performance: Evidence from India's urban water sector

Utility governance, incentives, and performance: Evidence from India's urban water sector

Policy sequencing for early-stage transition dynamics – A process model and comparative case study in the water sector

Sustainability scholars increasingly recognize that policy mixes can positively impact socio-technical transitions. However, the temporal dimension of policy interventions remains under-researched, especially in the context of early transition dynamics that typically emerge in niche contexts. In this article, we explore how policy sequencing can play a key role in supporting the scaling-up of early-stage transition dynamics to drive wider system change. We contribute to transition research by proposing a process model for analyzing policy sequences by focusing on the interplay between policy instruments and institutional barriers. We conceptualize two ideal-type policy sequencing patterns - strategic and reactive - which we illustrate with empirical examples from early transition dynamics in the urban water sector of San Francisco (United States) and Sant Cugat del Vallès (Spain). Applying the process model to these case studies reveals how different sequences of policy (instrument) mixes can assist in overcoming institutional barriers, thus supporting transition trajectories.

A selectivity index for public-private partnership projects in the urban water and sanitation sector in Latin America and the caribbean

The rapid urban development, the Agenda 2030, the climate change adaptation and the COVID 19 crisis highlight the need to increase investment in public infrastructure and improve water supply and sanitation services. For this, an alternative to traditional public procurement is the participation of the private sector under the public-private partnership (PPP) model. The objective of this article is to develop a tool based on critical success factors (CSFs) that allows for evaluation during early stages of the convenience of developing a PPP project for W&S in urban areas of Latin America and the Caribbean. The index was developed based on literature review (779 variables), review of cases (20 variables) and expert opinion to assign them an estimated value of importance. The results were analysed by exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis, selecting 17 main variables grouped into 6 CSFs, the most relevant of which are Convenience, Certainty, Leadership, Attraction, Performance and Reliability. The application of this index allows an early assessment of the feasibility of a PPP project and/or the selection of the alternatives with the best chances of success. On the other hand, this study contributes to the international discussion on the most relevant elements related to the success of PPP in W&S projects.

Review on the Water Quality Status of Lake Hawassa, Central Rift Valley Lakes, Ethiopia

Population growth, urbanization, and modernization are all contributing to sewage disposal issues and lake poisoning. The physical, chemical, and biological properties of water are typically used to describe its quality. Numerous factors, including BOD, temperature, electrical conductivity, nitrate, phosphorus, potassium, dissolved oxygen, etc., can be used to measure the quality of water. Because they pollute water or induce chronic poisoning in aquatic creatures, heavy metals like Pb, Cr, Fe, and Hg are particularly concerning. This review study stresses the Lake Hawassa water quality status using various research findings from both published and unpublished web documents. It was noted that the water from Lake Hawassa is extremely contaminated and may not meet the requirements for drinking and recreational uses, although with great care, it benefits aquatic life and irrigation. Pesticides were found in significant concentrations in Lake Hawassa's water, sediments, and fish species as a result of its exposure to effluent from industrial, urban, and agricultural runoff. As a result, the lake has become poisoned, threatening the aquatic ecosystem's biodiversity, which includes fish. Therefore, in order to protect Lake Hawassa's water supply, the government should implement the necessary controls to prevent the discharge of pollutants from agricultural fields, ceramics, textiles, plastics, urban storm water, leather tanning, and food processing sectors.

Innovative monitoring mechanism: Evidence from rural drinking water sector in Nepal

The paper aims at determining innovative monitoring mechanism in the context of rural drinking water sector of Nepal. This study is based on both primary and secondary data. The necessary primary data were collected through telephone interview using semi-structured questionnaire while the secondary data were collected through database and publications. The collected data were analysed through simple statistical tools to derived results leading to major findings of the study. The study shows that the innovative monitoring mechanism such as, letter monitoring, hello monitoring, sensor monitoring, and toll-free monitoring are useful tools for efficient and effective monitoring of rural drinking water system in the context of developing countries like Nepal. Considering the innovative monitoring ladders and on-site monitoring, the study further concludes that a combination of two or more innovative monitoring mechanisms will make more sense for effective and efficient monitoring mechanism to keep the projects functional and sustainable. This study may be useful for development actor in the sector, academia, and policy makers. The study can be further extended by capturing learning from the implementation for these innovative monitoring mechanism in the context of rural and urban drinking water sector in Nepal.

The Potential of Digitalization to Promote a Circular Economy in the Water Sector

The current amount of data coming from all kinds of devices together with the incessant increase in computing capacity is revolutionizing almost all existing sectors, and the water sector is no exception. The monitoring of urban water cycle infrastructures makes it possible to generate a large amount of data, this information, previously processed, helps to increase the efficiency of the processes carried out in these infrastructures, from catchment to purification and subsequent discharge. This information, in addition to improving internal aspects such as the operation and maintenance of the infrastructures, allows them to be linked to multiple other variables in other sectors, making new technological approaches and more effective management strategies possible. A practical example is wastewater treatment plants. From the perspective of the circular economy, these infrastructures are capable of producing a large amount of resources, which, if properly managed, can reduce the pressure on conventional resources. In this sense, digitization allows the integration of the different market players, thus optimizing the supply and demand of these resources and ultimately advancing the practical application of the circular economy. This paper reviews the potential of digitalization in the urban water sector and proposes numerous practical examples to accelerate the transition towards economic, social, and environmental sustainability.

Investigating socio-economic factors underlying urban consumers' willingness to pay extra for drinking water

Abstract The purpose of this study is to investigate the impact of economic and social factors on increasing public participation in the urban drinking water sector to develop a suitable plan for the coming years due to the growing population. The research instrument is a researcher-made questionnaire whose validity and reliability were confirmed. Then, 1,230 questionnaires were distributed among the citizens of Ardabil, Iran. A two-stage Heckman approach was used to estimate the valuation model. The results showed that the education, age, water health concern, income, household cost, household size and water quality satisfaction had a significant role in the amount of willingness to pay extra (WTP). The results showed that the variable age, income and water quality have a positive effect on WTP; with increases in the age, income and the water quality, WTP increases. However, in contrast to the water bill, concerns about the health of water and children have a negative effect on WTP. The results showed that the government could increase their tendency to participate with the government by informing people to water value and improve the quality of water.

Efficiency and its influencing factors of urban water sector in China and major OECD countries

Improving the efficiency and productivity of the water supply sector is related to the mitigation of a country's water resources crisis and the governance of the water ecological environment. This paper employs a sequential data envelopment analysis (DEA) approach to examine the comparative efficiency of China's urban water industry by using the country-level data from 1998 to 2017, and then attempts to make a cross-country comparison of the technology gap in the urban water industry between China and major OECD countries. The results show that China's urban water sector performance is improving despite falling short of urban water development in the major OECD. The gap between the performance of China's urban water sector and that of major OECD countries is narrowing. Efficiency improvement has become the main driver of productivity growth of urban water sector in both China and the major OECD countries. Besides, the reduction of capital deepening in the water industry and the easing of water stress could improve the water industry's performance in efficiency. While increased foreign direct investment instead reduces the water industry's efficiency, increased R&D expenditure can improve efficiency, but both are not statistically significant. These findings indicate that compared to major OECD countries, China's urban water industry should strengthen the reform change as soon as possible from asset-heavy to asset-light operation and service, and then improve the water conservation system.

Urban Water Resilience in Landscape of Digitally Connected Built Environment: An Assessment Matrix for Cities of Developing Nations

One of the major challenges faced by the local level agencies is the identification and applicability of assessment metrics and standards for urban water resilience, especially in India, as most of the considerable research on the resilience assessment refers to the developed western world context. These metrics have limited applicability in Indian context owing to limited data availability and varied significance of various indicators. It is of vital importance to assess the inherent urban water resilience, so as to channelize the limited resources in prioritized sectors, based on the assessment of water services for cities. This paper attempts to develop an urban water resilience assessment matrix, typically highlighting the integration of technology based on the applicability in Indian context. This matrix is based on a mix of household level indicators as well as utility level indicators. This novel matrix, for the cities of developing countries, attempt to capture the heterogeneity prevailing in the urban water sector based on the supply modes for city households.

The emergence of a global innovation system – A case study from the urban water sector

Innovation studies is increasingly acknowledging the multi-scalar nature of the systemic contexts, in which innovations are being developed and deployed. This paper builds on and further develops a recently proposed framework for studying global innovation systems (GIS). It aims at explaining the emergence of a GIS by outlining the specific local resource-related conditions that lead to the creation of structural couplings, i.e. actors, networks and institutions that allow for multi-scalar resource flows. Deploying a qualitative case study, the paper investigates the interrelated developments of eight demonstration sites of innovative wastewater treatment technology in North-Western Europe. It shows how resource-related deficits lead actors to draw on resources generated outside of their local context. The paper contributes to the literature on the Geography of Transitions by highlighting the importance of resource complementarities among different local contexts, as well as the crucial role of trans-local systemic intermediaries in shaping an emergent GIS.

Water, Energy, and Emissions Nexus: Effect of Inflows in Urban Drainage Systems

The urban water sector significantly contributes to energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. Detailed assessment of the wastewater system input provides opportunities for improving the water, energy, and emissions nexus. The inflow of water not requiring treatment into wastewater systems is acknowledged worldwide. These undue inflows can increase the footprint of these systems. Together with flooding and discharges, monitoring of undue inflows is not a common practice in water utilities. Three levels of analysis are proposed to assess the magnitude of the impact of undue inflows in the water–energy–greenhouse gas (W-E-G) emissions nexus: at a national level, calculation of performance indicators using yearly data; at the utility level, performance indicators calculations using yearly, monthly, and sub-daily data; at the subsystem level, calculations using mathematical modeling. Results show the implications of undue inflows on energy and GHG emissions, including the effect of flooding and discharges. The importance of undue inflows in the W-E-G nexus is sustained by the results of three case studies in Portugal. Each level of analysis is tailored to the information available, allowing a step-by-step understanding of the relationship between water, energy consumption, and emissions of the urban drainage inflows.

The emerging landscape of water governance in Egypt post COVID-19

The COVID-19 crisis has caused a major reshuffle in the core of water governance principles, including food security, water productivity, self-sufficiency and water allocation to high-value us- ers. The pandemic, as a sudden external driver, impacted such principles; this impact was noticed through the effects of the lockdown on exports of crops and supplies, as well as the reduced labour workforce. This article introduces a framework to analyse the effects of the pandemic on the water sector since traditional indicators and data do not capture the initial shock of the first wave of the pandemic. The framework is operationalized and applied to study the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic on the Egyptian water sector and on how it shapes water governance. The article analyses those changes in the urban water sector and in the agricultural sector. It analyses the effects it has on the urban water system, as the sector moves towards digitalization and safe- guarding urban water supplies. In the agricultural sector, Egypt’s position on self-sufficiency and food security policy changes in food imports and exports is analysed. Analysing the two sectors will allow us to see how COVID-19 could have changed the present and translated it into possible pathways for future water governance in Egypt. Moreover, the COVID-19 crisis has created op- portunities for sustainable water governance in Egypt that can help deal with future crises. In ad- dition, there are slow, creeping effects of climate change that Egypt has experienced when Cairo experienced a severe urban flood. The article draws insights from the past on how COVID-19 has changed the present and translates them into future pathways for possible water governance in Egypt. Assessment of the reliability of the water sector undergoing crises or pandemic situations is crucial to facilitate decision-making so as to evolve action plans that can maintain the water availability for the people and safeguard essential services.

GEOGRAPHIES OF WATER SCARCITY IN THE ERA OF COVID-19 PANDEMIC

Background: Water is the most important natural resource that guarantees socio-economic development and quality of man’s life, while its consumptive demand increases in response to the geographic diversities of the human population. Aim: This study examined the influence of some geographic variables on households’ exposure to water scarcity during the COVID-19 pandemic in Potiskum town, Yobe State. Methods: Online survey was conducted on the households’ water demand and availability, while the data were analyzed with both descriptive and inferential statistical models. Findings: It highlighted that about 34% of the households were using unimproved water sources, which increases their spatial distance coverage, time, and energy expenditures for the water fetching. The WSVI demonstrated the exposure of 60.2% of the households to the varying levels of water scarcity, which constitute a threat to the attainment of SDG 6 and compliance with the COVID-19 pandemic’s safety measures. Similarly, the geographic determinants were found to statistically correlate with the dynamics of the water supply. Whereas, the linear regression model of the determinants was found to account for 32.7% of the households’ susceptibility to the water crisis. Conclusion: It affirmed the presence of water scarcity, attributed to the geographic factors, and prompted by the emergence of the COVID-19 pandemic. Thus, it suggests increased investments in the urban water sector, towards improving affordable access to the water supply and enhanced WASH service, which reduces the vulnerability of the households to water crisis and transmission of contagious diseases such as the COVID-19 pandemic.

Gender inequality in urban water governance: Continuity and change in two towns of Nepal

AbstractGender‐based inequality has long been recognized as a challenge in water governance and urban development. Women do most of the water collection‐related tasks in the majority of low‐income country's urban areas, as they do in rural areas for drinking, household consumption, kitchen gardening, and farming. However, their voice is rarely heard in water governance. When climate change exacerbates water scarcity, it becomes harder for people to secure water with more pronounced effects on women. Drawing on the narratives of men and women involved in water management practices and also the views of the stakeholders who are part of water resource management in two towns in Nepal, this paper demonstrates emerging forms of gender inequality concerning access to and control over water resources, as well as associated services such as sanitation. We found that women's voice in water governance is systematically excluded, and such gender‐based disadvantage intersects with economic disadvantage as women in low‐income poor urban settlements are experiencing additional difficulty in accessing water and sanitation services. Gender inequity persists in the urban water sector, and of course the wider social structures, despite some progressive policy changes in recent years, such as the 30% quota reserved for women in local‐level water management bodies in Nepal. The paper concludes that tackling gender inequity in water management requires a transformative approach that seriously takes into account women's voice, critical awareness, and open deliberation over the causes and consequences of the current approaches and practices. Moreover, gender‐inclusive outcomes on water management are linked to changes in areas outside of the water sector, such as property ownership structures that constrain or enable women's access to water and related services.

From Pilot Projects to Transformative Infrastructures, Exploring Market Receptivity for Permeable Pavement in The Netherlands

Climate change and changing land use challenge the livability and flood safety of Dutch cities. One option cities have to become more climate-proof is to increase infiltration of stormwater into soil through permeable pavement and thus reduce discharge of stormwater into sewer systems. To analyze the market receptivity for permeable pavements in the Netherlands, this article focuses on the perception of end-users towards key transition factors in the infrastructure transformation processes. Market receptivity was studied on two levels: (1) on the system level, by analyzing 20 key factors in the Dutch urban water sector that enable wider application of permeable pavements; and (2) on the technology level, by analyzing 12 key factors that explain why decision makers select permeable pavements or not. Results show that trust between cooperating partners was perceived as the system level key factor that needs to be improved most to facilitate the wider uptake of permeable pavements. Additionally, the association of end-users with permeable pavement, particularly their willingness to apply these technologies and their understanding of what kinds of benefits these technologies could bring, was regarded the most important receptivity attribute. On the technology level, the reliability of permeable pavement was regarded as the most important end-user consideration for selecting this technology.

Matching customers’ preferences for tariff reform with managers’ appetite for change: The case of volumetric‐only tariffs in Australia

At the height of the Millennium Drought in Australia, there was unprecedented interest in the role of demand‐side management in the urban water sector. Conservation tariffs, where water users pay significantly less by reducing consumption, were mooted in some policy circles, although they were never seriously trialled. The easing of the drought was also accompanied by a new era of economic regulation, where monopoly water suppliers are increasingly encouraged to deliver services valued by customers. This trend has been embraced in Victoria, where the Essential Services Commission effectively rewards water businesses that match their services against customer expectations. This article explores whether customers and business managers hold similar priorities for water services by using a Best‐Worst Scaling experiment. The experiment includes a conservation tariff, and findings suggest that customers enjoy relatively higher utility from these tariffs, sustainability, water restrictions and small‐scale projects compared to the services emphasised by managers. The study exposes the general difficulty of water businesses matching their customers’ preferences, especially if there is heterogeneity in preferences and given businesses must simultaneously deliver on many other fronts.

Corruption and integrity in the urban water and sanitation sector: A case study of Mexico City

Despite considerable public funding, Mexico City faces inadequate and inequitably distributed water infrastructure. Corruption in public fund management and at the interface between institutions and individuals is fed by opaque governing systems. Local actors agree that sustainable water management must begin with systemic changes to enable transparent and participative governance.