Urban Vegetable Farming Research Articles

Land Tenure and Water Sources for Urban Vegetable Farmers in Asante-Mampong, Ghana

Objectives: Farmland tenure and water sources are increasingly challenging among urban vegetable farmers. The pertaining situation and wastewater reuse potential are assessed in one of well-known vegetable producing centers in Ghana. Methods/Statistical Analysis: Data was collected using structured interviews and observations in a farm-based survey with 50 selected farmers (i.e. 30% of estimated farmers) between February and March 2015. Data analyses employed descriptive statistics, one-sample t-test and Chi square goodness-of-fit test at 5% significance level. Findings: Few farmers (12%, n=6) own their farmlands, and 36% (n=18) were renting at a median cost of GHS 87.5 per acre/year (GHS 77.3±35.6), which is costlier than the expected. Sizes of farmlands were mostly 1 – 2 acres (82%, n=41, p=0.064), smaller than expected although statistically insignificant. Most farmers planted vegetables all seasons (both dry and wet) (88%, n=44), and 1 – 2 different vegetables are planted on-plot at a time by most farmers as well (86%, n=43). Farmers mostly depended on direct rains (rain fed irrigation) and rain-dependent water sources (94% to 95%). Meanwhile, awareness and willingness to practice wastewater irrigation is low, 20% (n=10) and 4% (n=2) respectively. Some cost analyses and means of family livelihood are discussed in the paper. Application/ Improvements: Vegetable farmland tenure arrangements are not the best but make farmers insecure and incur high rent. Farmers’ livelihoods are prone to rainwater source overdependence. Wastewater reuse potential must be explored. Keywords: Farmland Tenure, Ghana, Vegetable Farmers, Wastewater Reuse, Water Sources

Governance in urban and peri-urban vegetable farming in Tamale, Northern Ghana

This article uses the example of Tamale, Ghana, to examine urban food system governance, with a focus on food production. Urban and peri-urban agriculture is common in West Africa, and supports food security and livelihoods globally. The analysis is grounded in the notion of everyday governance as a process co-performed by governors and subjects. Ideas from the conceptual tools of forum shopping and institutional shopping will be used to explain the dynamics inherent in urban food governance. We focus on data pertaining to land and water, major points of contention in this context. Examples are drawn from a database comprising interviews, focus group discussions, observational records and secondary data. They show how actors take advantage of gaps and ambiguities in governance to make selections between different institutions and the governance modes they represent, for example using administrative law to challenge a chief’s prerogative to sell land. They may also select the forums in which they do this, supporting the forum shopping and institutional shopping models as presented in the literature. Our data also show situations involving partial elements and extensions of forum shopping and institutional shopping. These include institutions shopping for the support of actors; strategic inconsistency, where actors present alternative arguments within an accepted forum, and hybrid governance, where multiple institutions and actor groups co-govern while acknowledging each other. Our work explains the way in which subjects and governors co-construct governance. The confirmation of subjects’ agency, and therefore the potential power of advocacy, is salient for governors as well as governed actor groups. Another relevant implication is that transparency is essential, especially in the co-construction of hybrid governance.

Farmers’ perceptions on irrigation water contamination, health risks and risk management measures in prominent wastewater-irrigated vegetable farming sites of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

The use of wastewater to produce food crops particularly vegetables is very prevalent in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. This practice may pose health risks to farm workers and consumers. Hence, the study was designed to evaluate farmers’ perceptions on irrigation water quality, health risks and health risk mitigation measures in four wastewater-irrigated urban vegetable farming sites in Addis Ababa. Data were collected on farm through 263 individual interviews and 12 focus group discussions. The findings showed that despite differences in levels of knowledge and awareness on health risks, farmers appear informed about the contamination of their irrigation water. The difference in perception to quality consideration of Akaki River/irrigation water is highlighted by the result of Kruskal–Wallis H test analysis which shows significant mean value (1.33) of positive perception toward the water quality by male than female farmers. Interestingly, significant difference (p < 0.05) in mean values of awareness toward problems of eating unwashed vegetables is also found between male and female farmers where females seemed to be more aware. Conversely, no significant difference was found in mean value of perception and awareness toward vegetables quality. Among the perceived health risks, skin problems were top-rated health risk while eye burn, sore feet and abdominal pains were rated low across the four farming sites. Although statistically not significant, perception toward consumption-related health risk differed with gender: females assigned relatively high mean score. Irrespective of the farming site and gender differences, the most accepted health risk reduction measures were health promotion programs and cessation of irrigation before harvesting. In view of crop restriction measures, females assigned significantly (p = 0.044) low mean score to planting non-food produce. Akaki-Addis farmers suitability perceptions of planting non-food produce and non-raw eaten crops were significantly (p < 0.001) higher than the other farming sites. Therefore, effective site and gender-specific educational programs have the potential for clarifying farmers and consumers’ risks and risk management perceptions and improving practical knowledge, which in turn may help identify adoption barriers, opportunities and incentives.

Heavy metal accumulation and health risk assessment in wastewater-irrigated urban vegetable farming sites of Addis Ababa, Ethiopia

BackgroundWastewater irrigation for vegetable production is a highly prevalent practice in Addis Ababa and a number of articles have been published on wastewater-irrigated soils and vegetables contaminated with heavy metals. However, to the best of our knowledge, an insight into assessment of human health risks associated with the consumption of vegetable crops grown on wastewater-irrigated soils is non-existent in the city. Long-term effect of wastewater irrigation on the build-up of heavy metals in soils and selected vegetable crops in Addis Ababa urban vegetable farming sites (10) was evaluated. By calculating estimated daily intakes (EDIs) and target hazard quotients (THQs) of metals, health risk associated with the consumption of the analyzed vegetables was also evaluated.ResultsThe heavy metal concentrations in irrigation water and soils did not exceed the recommended maximum limits (RMLs). Moreover, Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Ni and Zn concentrations in all analyzed vegetables were lower than the RML standards. In contrast, Pb concentrations were 1.4–3.9 times higher. Results of two way ANOVA test showed that variation in metals concentrations were significant (p < 0.001) across farming site, vegetable type and site x vegetable interaction. The EDI and THQ values showed that there would be no potential health risk to local inhabitants due to intake of individual metal if one or more of the analyzed vegetables are consumed. Furthermore, total target hazard quotients (TTHQs) for the combined metals due to all analyzed vegetables were lower than 1, suggesting no potential health risk even to highly exposed local inhabitants.ConclusionsThere is a great respite that toxic metals like Pb and Cd have not posed potential health risk even after long term (more than 50 years) use of this water for irrigation. However, intermittent monitoring of the metals from irrigation water, in soil and crops may be required to follow/prevent their build-up in the food chain.

Perceptions and Practices of Herbicide Use among Peri Urban Vegetable Farmers in Selected Hubs of the Accra Plains

Perceptions and Practices of Herbicide Use among Peri Urban Vegetable Farmers in Selected Hubs of the Accra Plains

Sources of information for urban vegetable farmers in Accra, Ghana

This study assesses sources of information for vegetable farmers in urban part of Accra, Ghana. One hundred vegetable farmers in the study area were sampled and interviewed using structured questionnaires. Findings revealed that urban vegetable farming is regarded as the business of men. Most of the urban vegetable farmers use radio as a source of agricultural information. Farmers use information on agrochemicals acquired in applying fertilizer, weedicides and pest control. A challenge to the urban vegetable farmers in Accra is poor public relations on the part of agricultural extension agents. The study recommends that the Ministry of Food and Agriculture roll out a programme to educate urban vegetable farmers on the various sources of agricultural information and sponsor adult education programmes in the local languages on national radio and television for farmers to help them make use of different sources of agricultural information effectively.

The impact of farmers’ participation in field trials in creating awareness and stimulating compliance with the World Health Organization’s farm-based multiple-barrier approach

The results of a study aimed as assessing the extent to which urban vegetable farmers’ participation in field trials can impact on their awareness and engender compliance with the World Health Organization’s farm-based multiple-barrier approach are presented in this paper. Both qualitative and quantitative approaches have been used in this paper. One hundred vegetable farmers and four vegetable farmers’ associations in the Kumasi Metropolis in Ghana were covered. The individual farmers were grouped into two, namely: (1) participants and (2) non-participants of the farm-based multiple-barrier approach field trials. The results of the study show that participation in the field trials has statistically significant effects on farmers’ awareness of the farm-based multiple-barrier approach. Compliance has, however, been undermined by the farmers’ perception that the cost of compliance is more that the benefits. Policy tools that can address these constraints have been recommended in the paper.

English

The search for suitable alternatives to loam, manure and sand based growing media in Ghana has generated a substantial body of literature on potential amendments akin to the peat based media in developed countries. The objectives of this study were to review literature on potential soil amendments in Ghana, determine the reasons for farmer choice of amendments and determine factors influencing farmer adoption of these amendments. Document review and survey were the main methods used in data collection. The review of literature indicates that the research and discourse on soil amendment over the last two decades have largely been limited to land management and nutrient recovery from waste. Although these have largely been reported as successful, they have not addressed the quality issues of soil amendments as finished product for application in specific production systems. As the amendments are not standardized, farmers adopt varying application rates based on their own experiences. Barriers in the use of amendments were found to be the technology to collect, funds to purchase and labour employment. The agro-ecology and the farmers&rsquo; level of education largely determined the use of particular amendment. The study found wide scale acceptance and adoption of sawdust based poultry litter by urban vegetable farmers, hence the co-composting of sawdust and poultry manure would be the best option that can be developed and standardised for application in urban horticulture. Future research in soil amendment should therefore focus on net N mineralisation, stability indices and the responses of vegetable and ornamental plants to different ratios of co-composting of sawdust and poultry manure. &nbsp; Key words: Growing media, soil amendment, urban horticulture, composting, organic waste, urban farmers. &nbsp

Irrigation Technology and Technical and Resource-Use Efficiencies in Smallholder Urban Vegetable Farming

ABSTRACTUse of efficient irrigation technologies is necessary to increase output of production from farms in or near urban settings. Levels of technical and resource-use efficiency in urban vegetable production with and without motorized irrigation were assessed. Cluster sampling was used to obtain information from 142 smallholder urban vegetable farmers in Lagos State, Nigeria. Of the respondents, 18.3% used motorized pumps and 81.7% used manual irrigation with watering cans. Of those, 61.5% and 35.3% of motorized pump and manual irrigation users, respectively, had grown crops on their land continuously for more than 5 years. A stochastic frontier model indicated that quantities of irrigation (P < 0.01) and pesticides (P < 0.10) positively affected vegetable output; amount of fertilizer used (P < 0.05) negatively influenced productivity. Urban vegetable growers operated at a decreasing return to scale (0.5284). The inefficiency model indicated that male producers (P < 0.01) were more technically efficient than their female counterparts. Technical education (P < 0.10) and years of urban vegetable farming experience (P < 0.01) improved producer technical efficiency. Urban vegetable farming needs to be more technically efficient to increase profitability.

URBAN WOMEN PARTICIPATION IN VEGETABLE GARDENING IN ONDO SENATORIAL DISTRICT OF ONDO STATE, NIGERIA

The study examined urban women participation in vegetable gardening and specifically delved into assessing the socio-economic characteristics of women engaged in urban gardening, the level of participation of the women and social roles they played. Primary data for the study was gathered through the use of a well-structured questionnaire administered on 140 female urban vegetable farmers to obtain relevant information on vegetable production in the study area. The data was analyzed using both descriptive and inferential statistics; mean, frequency counts, percentages while Spearman’s rank correlation was used to test the hypothesis. Major findings revealed that majority (67.2%) of the respondents were between the age ranges of 30-49 years with a mean of 41years, a lot of them were illiterates (42.1%) with average household size having a mean of 5. Majority (75.06%) earned below ₦150,000.00 with a mean income of ₦112,857.14 annually. Results also showed that urban women vegetable farmers frequently participate in harvesting (x=2.94), followed by Marketing of produce (x=2.89), raising seedlings (x=2.74), weeding (x=2.67). Years of experience (r=0.194) and income (r=0.264) positively correlated with participation in vegetable gardening activities. Women were advised to increase farm size and maintain their high participation so as to improve on their family welfare. Keywords: Urban women, Participation, vegetable gardening, Ondo State

Commercialization of Urban Vegetable Farming

Markets and improved market access are critical for improving urban incomes, particularly in Africa. Despite this, participation of farmers in domestic and regional markets in southwest Nigeria remains low due to a range of constraints. One of the limiting constraints faced by farmers is linked to poor market access. Determinants of commercialization of urban vegetable farming in southwest Nigeria were analyzed. Two hundred and thirty vegetable farmers were randomly selected from Oyo and Lagos states. Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics and the Tobit model. The Tobit regression indicated that age, farm size, membership in associations, years of education, distance to market, heterogeneity index, cost of fertilizer, cost of chemicals, and decision-making index influenced extent of commercialization. With diminishing land area it would be more prudent to focus on improving productivity. Social capital enhanced commercialization and it becomes necessary to improve farmer business skills.

The impact of the expansion of urban vegetable farming on malaria transmission in major cities of Benin

The impact of the expansion of urban vegetable farming on malaria transmission in major cities of Benin

Risk Assessment of Heavy-Metal Contamination on Vegetables Grown in Long-Term Wastewater Irrigated Urban Farming Sites in Accra, Ghana

Assessment was done of heavy-metal contamination and its related health risks in urban vegetable farming in Accra. Samples of irrigation water (n=120), soil (n=144) and five different kinds of vegetable (n=240) were collected and analyzed for copper, zinc, lead, cadmium, chromium, nickel and cobalt. All water, soil and vegetable samples contained detectable concentrations of each of the seven heavy metals except for irrigation water which had no detectable chromium, cadmium and cobalt. All heavy-metal levels were below permissible limits except lead on vegetables which was 1.8–3.5 times higher. Health risk assessments showed for all elements that normal consumption of each of the vegetables assessed poses no risk. The highest hazard index obtained was 42 % for wastewater irrigated cabbage. Though within permissible limits, cabbage and ayoyo had the highest potential risk. Compared with previous studies on the same sites, the data show that the risk from heavy metals is less significance than that from pathogen contamination which has positive implications for risk mitigation.

Safe Re-use Practices in Wastewater-Irrigated Urban Vegetable Farming in Ghana

Irrigation using untreated wastewater poses health risks to farmers and consumers of crop products, especially vegetables. With hardly any wastewater treatment in Ghana, a multiple-barrier approach was adopted and safe re-use practices were developed through action research involving a number of stakeholders at different levels along the food chain. This paper presents an overview of safe re-use practices including farm-based water treatment methods, water application techniques, post-harvest handling practices, and washing methods. The overview is based on a comprehensive analysis of the literature and our own specific studies, which used data from a broad range of research methods and approaches. Identifying, testing, and assessment of safe practices were done with the active participation of key actors using observations, extensive microbiological laboratory assessments, and field-based measurements. The results of our work and the work of others show that the practices developed had a great potential to reduce health risks, especially when used to complement each other at different levels of the food chain. Future challenges are the development of a comprehensive framework that best combines tested risk-reduction strategies for wide application by national stakeholders as well as their potential implementation into legally enforceable national standards.

Dynamics and diversification of livelihood in urban fringe of Aligarh city, U.P., India

Urban fringe is a region of urban-rural interface, continuously moving outward in response to urban sprawl or expansion over the times. It is the area of socio economic transition, experiencing dynamism in the pattern of livelihoods of the people. Land resource used under various cropping systems providing livelihoods to the rural people is declining due to increasing demand of land for non agricultural uses. The declining agricultural activity in the urban fringe has resulted in diversification and structural change in livelihoods. The exposure to urban lifestyle and mass media is causing mental transformation of youth in the urban fringe. They are more inclined towards value added farming systems and non farm activities of secondary or tertiary sectors. Dynamics in socio-economic milieus of urban fringe presented the challenges for livelihood security, employment opportunities and the sustainability of existing farming system and environment in the area. The present study analyzes the impact of urban expansion upon the structural change in pattern of livelihood of people of various socio economic horizons and the diversification of farming systems in the urban fringe of Aligarh city during last 20 years. The study is based on primary data generated through field survey of five villages from urban fringe of the city. The Study reveals expansion of Aligarh city at least three times since 1990. A large number of villages have been included in municipality area but rural economic activities like cropping and animal husbandry still exist in the form of urban vegetable and dairy farming operated by the local people and the immigrants from other parts of the district. The urban fringe witnessed dynamism and diversification in sources of livelihood. The study reveals that approximately 20 percent of surveyed people are only engaged in agriculture. The other important source of livelihood is animal husbandry, agro-processing, retailing and allied services.This structural change in livelihood has resulted in social, economic and environmental instability.

Operational pattern and contribution of urban farming in an emerging megacity: evidence from Lagos, Nigeria

Operational pattern and contribution of urban farming in an emerging megacity: evidence from Lagos, NigeriaUrban farming is rapidly growing in many cities in Nigeria including a leading African megacity Lagos, although urban stakeholders have paid little attention to the trend over time. The rate of growth of urban farming and its contributions to Lagos state's food supply strategy is worthy of note. In Lagos farming activities are practiced and performed by some able bodied migrants from all parts of the country, who for many reasons could hardly have been absolved by the aggressive urban economy of the city. A close watch on the practitioners reveals a pattern of operation which requires deeper inquiry. A total of 202 urban vegetable farmers were interviewed in four areas of Lagos state to provide primary data for this study. Results from the study showed that an average farmer owns a farm plot of below 120 m by 60 m usually linear and along the expressway, the green vegetable (Celosia argientes) alone constitutes about 97% of what is grown, beds are arranged in sizes of about 1.8 m long by 0.9 m wide and 0.3 m high with furrows in between. The farmers use the simplest local tools, chemical fertilizers, and strategically located irrigation wells. It was also found that the farmers use some part of the vegetables for household consumption, sell others to the local marketers, and contribute their own quota to stem the rising prices of vegetable produce in the local markets. It is therefore imperative on the stakeholders to re-examine the relevance of urban farming in the city and provide support for its growth.

The impact of the expansion of urban vegetable farming on malaria transmission in major cities of Benin

BackgroundUrban agricultural practices are expanding in several cities of the Republic of Benin. This study aims to assess the impact of such practices on transmission of the malaria parasite in major cities of Benin.MethodA cross sectional entomological study was carried out from January to December 2009 in two vegetable farming sites in southern Benin (Houeyiho and Acron) and one in the northern area (Azèrèkè). The study was based on sampling of mosquitoes by Human Landing Catches (HLC) in households close to the vegetable farms and in others located far from the farms.ResultsDuring the year of study, 71,678 female mosquitoes were caught by HLC of which 25% (17,920/71,678) were Anopheles species. In the areas surveyed, the main malaria parasite, Plasmodium falciparum was transmitted in the south by Anopheles gambiae s.s. Transmission was high during the two rainy seasons (April to July and October to November) but declined in the two dry seasons (December to March and August to September). In the north, transmission occurred from June to October during the rainy season and was vehicled by two members of the An. gambiae complex: Anopheles gambiae s.s. (98%) and Anopheles arabiensis (2%).At Houeyiho, Acron and Azèrèkè, the Entomological Inoculation Rates (EIRs) and the Human Biting Rates (HBRs) were significantly higher during the dry season in Households Close to Vegetable Farms (HCVF) than in those located far from the vegetable areas (HFVF) (p < 0.05.). However, there were no significant differences in HBRs or EIRs between HCFV and HFVF during the rainy seasons at these sites (p > 0.05).The knock-down resistance (kdr) mutation was the main resistance mechanism detected at high frequency (0.86 to 0.91) in An. gambiae s.l. at all sites. The ace-1R mutation was also found but at a very low frequency (< 0.1).ConclusionThese findings showed that communities living close to vegetable farms are permanently exposed to malaria throughout the year, whereas the risk in those living far from such agricultural practices is limited and only critical during the rainy seasons. Measures must be taken by African governments to create awareness among farmers and ultimately decentralize farming activities from urban to rural areas where human-vector contact is limited.

Perceptions of farmers on health risks and risk reduction measures in wastewater‐irrigated urban vegetable farming in Ghana

Most irrigation water used in urban vegetable farming in Ghana is contaminated with untreated wastewater. This poses health risks to farmers and consumers. As part of a study to explore options for health risk reduction, this paper summarizes farmers' perceptions on health risks and possible risk reduction measures. Participatory research methods and techniques such as focus group discussions, in‐depth interviews and visualization techniques were used for data collection based on methodological triangulation. The findings showed that farmers were aware that untreated wastewater posed health risks. Occupational health risks like skin infections were perceived to have the greatest risks and not nematode infections and bacterial diseases which are usually associated with wastewater irrigation. Possible health risks to consumers were rated very low and many farmers said that they were sensitized on this through media and projects. Farmers perceived many of the risk reduction measures suggested in the international guidelines as unsuitable and identified simple and low‐cost measures which they could easily adopt. They were willing to adopt risk reduction measures to avoid further pressure from the media, authorities and the general public, especially if they had some incentives. These findings demonstrate the need to involve farmers as early as possible in intervention projects especially in informal farming practices, like urban agriculture, where restrictions are difficult to implement. This will ensure that their perceptions, constraints or any other required incentives for adopting interventions are considered, hence leading to developing more appropriate interventions.

Potential of simple filters to improve microbial quality of irrigation water used in urban vegetable farming in Ghana

Irrigation water used for growing vegetables in urban areas in many low-income countries is contaminated with untreated wastewater. Many wastewater treatment methods are economically prohibitive and continued use of such irrigation water pose health risks for vegetable consumers and farmers. As part of a larger study on possible interventions for health risk reduction, the potential of simple interventions was explored. Column slow sand filters with three levels of sand depths (0.5 m, 0.75 m and 1 m) and fabric filters made of nylon, cotton and netting were assessed. More than 600 water samples were analyzed for helminth eggs and thermotolerant coliforms. Flow rates were also measured. From slow sand filters, 71–96% of helminths and 2 log units (from 7 to 5 log units) of thermotolerant coliforms were removed. Sand depths had no significant influence in the removal. Lower removal rates were achieved by fabric filters, with an average removal of 12–62% for helminth eggs and 1 log unit for thermotolerant coliforms. Nylon filters had higher removal rates especially for helminth eggs (58%). Average flow rates for sand filters were 3 m per day and fabric filters had steady flows of about 1.5 liters per second, but flow reduced with time in cotton filters. The simple filters tested improved the microbial quality of irrigation water and could easily be used in combination with other interventions to further reduce health risks. The unit cost of the filters tested also appear acceptable to farmers and some incentives like better prices will motivate many farmers to invest in such simple interventions.

Using on-farm sedimentation ponds to improve microbial quality of irrigation water in urban vegetable farming in Ghana

This paper presents an assessment of the potential of using on-farm ponds to reduce levels of microbial contamination in wastewater--contaminated irrigation water. The study involved observations on the use of ponds in urban agriculture in Kumasi, Ghana, and more than 300 irrigation water samples were taken for physico-chemical and microbial laboratory analysis. The study shows that while on-farm ponds are commonly used, their potential to remove pathogens through sedimentation has not been fully optimized. Two-thirds of helminth eggs were in the sediments and careful collection of irrigation water without disturbing sediments reduced helminth eggs in irrigation water by about 70%. Helminth eggs reduced from about 5 to less than 1 egg per litre in three days in both dry and wet seasons while thermotolerant coliforms took six days in the dry season to reduce from about 8 to 4 log units per 100 ml, to meet the WHO guidelines. For optimal pathogen removal, better pond designs, farmers' training on collection of water with minimal disturbance and any other means to enhance sedimentation and pathogen die-off can be essential components of a multiple-barrier approach complementing farm-based measures like simple filtration techniques, better irrigation methods and post-harvest contamination.