Urban Spatial Form Research Articles

Heritage-Based Spatial Form Consideration: Western Urban Planning Concepts Used in Chinese Urban (Dalian) Development

Dalian, a typical modern colonial city, originated in the late 19th century and was planned and built by Russian architects. Academics have traditionally focused on the unique qualities of the spatial form from the early stages of urban development, but due to a lack of urban history archives, the formation of the spatial form and the planning ideology of this time have not been examined. For this study, we visited the Russian State Historical Archives to search for relevant materials to restore the process of forming Dalian’s spatial form. Based on this, the heritage value and attributes of Dalian’s modern urban spatial form are discussed. The results show that, although Dalian was always under the control of Russian political power at the early stage of its urban construction, the urban planning ideas were integrated with modern Western urban planning ideas. Secondly, under the influence of modern Western urban planning ideas, including “classicalism” and the “garden city”, the modern Dalian urban space gradually formed a unique form and appearance, bearing the brand of the times and urban memory in a special context. Moreover, this study finds that the evolution of urban space is not simply a cumulative development of itself but the result of the influence of external ideas implanted with unique heritage values and attributes.

A comparative study on urban land use eco-efficiency of Yangtze and Yellow rivers in China: From the perspective of spatiotemporal heterogeneity, spatial transition and driving factors

Increasing urban land use eco-efficiency (ULUEE) is conducive to alleviating the human-land conflict in cities, especially in densely populated and ecologically sensitive areas. ULUEE research in the past has been less focused on different river basins from a comparative perspective, and largely ignored the regional heterogeneity in driving factors. Thus, this study aims to compare the spatiotemporal dynamics and driving factors of ULUEE in the Yangtze River Economic Belt (YREB) and Yellow River Basin (YRB) in China. The ULUEE was first evaluated using the Slack Based Model-Undesirable, and then the Theil Index and spatial Markov Chain were used to reveal the differential changes and shifting direction of the ULUEE, followed by an analysis of the driving factors of different segments of different river basins and sized cities using the Tobit model. Results show that: (1) in both YREB and YRB, the ULUEE shows the characteristic of “lower reaches > middle reaches > upper reaches”, however, notable differences in Theil index values are evident among basins and basin segments. (2) ULUEE exhibits spillovers and convergence phenomena during its spatial variations. (3) There is a significant U-shaped relationship between ULUEE and GDP in the whole basin and different segments of YREB, but only in the middle and lower reaches of YRB. Additionally, urban spatial form and environmental regulations have heterogeneous impacts on ULUEE in different-sized cities. In order to maintain sustainability in urban land resource management and coordinate city development of varying sizes, governments must take a systematic approach that accounts for the complexity of spatial characteristics and drivers of ULUEE.

Analysis and Optimization of Thermal Environment in Old Urban Areas from the Perspective of “Function–Form” Differentiation

High-density urban areas have spatial characteristics, such as complex functions, population gathering, and complex forms, that lead to more severe urban heat island effects. Systematically evaluating the thermal environmental benefits of urban spatial forms to optimize the urban physical environment is important. In this study, Tianjin’s central urban area, which is a typical representative of high-density urban areas, was selected to invert the multi-period land surface temperature by relying on the existing two- and three-dimensional morphological data set of communities. The multi-scale geographically weighted regression model was used to fit the regression relationship between the urban land surface temperature and spatial morphological parameters. From this, the influencing factors of different types of existing community spaces and their spatial stabilities were explored. The results show the following: (1) The summer surface temperature varies greatly in the central urban area, and the high-temperature areas are mainly distributed in the industrial, residential, and commercial districts. (2) The MGWR model has the better model-fitting ability. The positive influence coefficients of temperature include ISP and BD, while the negative influence coefficients are BSD, BH, NDVI, and SVF. (3) There is significant spatial heterogeneity in the impact coefficients among the blocks that can be targeted to mitigate the heat island effect. This study provides ideas for optimizing the spatial morphological parameters of surface temperature in urban centers. Future challenges include increasing the spatial morphological parameter selection range, dissecting the interactive relationships between spatial morphological parameters and their effectiveness on the surface temperature, and refining the study’s spatial and temporal granularity.

A Demographic Characteristics-Based Study on the Visual Impact Assessment of the External Form of Entrance Pavilions to the Underground Stations of China’s Subway

The subway is one of urban residents’ main means of public transportation. The design of entrance pavilions to subway stations has shown a diverse development trend over time. Since most of the subway building space is underground, it is very difficult for subway users or the public to view the structure fully. In this instance, the ground-level entrance pavilion becomes the most eye-catching element in the subway system. From the perspective of the urban spatial environment, the external form of entrance pavilions is one of the components of urban architecture. The design of the external form of entrance pavilions has an important impact on the urban spatial form and affects people’s feelings about the urban space. Therefore, it is essential to study the external form of entrance pavilions. This study investigated 42 subway entrance pavilions in 17 cities in China. The following features were studied: exterior contour, façade permeability, cultural characteristics, decorative materials, and the number of exterior colors. The photostimulation method was adopted to evaluate the influence of the physical features of the external form of the entrance pavilions on respondents’ visual impact assessment. The data analysis showed that respondents with different demographic characteristics provided different visual impact assessments of the external form of the entrance pavilions, and all five physical features influenced their assessment. This study offers a valuable reference for constructing entrance pavilions and urban spaces in Chinese cities in the future.

The Association between Carbon Emission and Urban Spatial Form—A Study of Zhuhai, China

Research on carbon emission is an important basis for solving global climate problems, and it is also one of the ways to quantitatively assess the impact of human activities. Cities are one of the main bearing spaces of human activities, and reasonable urban form is conducive to reducing energy consumption in human activities. This paper takes 50 clusters within Zhuhai, China, as the research object, quantifies the landscape spatial form index and social spatial form index of each cluster and establishes the index set of urban spatial form, so as to analyze the influence of different urban spatial form index on carbon emission. The main conclusions are as follows: (1) From the spatial distribution of each index, the urban cluster size and residential building area of each cluster in Zhuhai are generally large, and the distribution is basically consistent with that of densely populated areas. The urban clusters with high dominance are mainly located in the main urban area of Xiangzhou District, and the urban compactness, dispersion and industrial building area are generally high in the west and low in the east. (2) The size of urban clusters, industrial building area and residential building area have a strong promoting effect on carbon emission, while the compactness, dispersion and dominance of urban clusters have a strong inhibiting effect on carbon emission. (3) Based on the above conclusions, the low-carbon urban spatial form optimization strategy should be proposed from three aspects: urban development boundary control, promoting industrial structure transformation and compact urban development.

A systematic literature review of mobility attitudes and mode choices: MENA and South Asian cities

Urban mobility behavior is influenced by complex interrelations of personal attitudes, neighborhood design, emerging digitalized shared mobility services, and urban governance. The transformation of urban mobility ecosystems in the Middle East and North African (MENA) and the South Asian (SA) regions lacks an in-depth comparative review to understand the determinants of mobility attitudes and mode choices. The objective of this paper is to systematically study the existing literature on cities in the MENA and SA regions to provide a comparative review of the analyses and the findings on urban mobility attitudes in light of prevailing societal conditions and urban-spatial forms. A systematic methodology was deployed to shortlist recently published journal papers from the years 2000 to 2022 for the MENA and SA regions. Application of the (shortlisting) methodology has identified 43 studies from the MENA region and 43 papers from the SA region to be most suitable for the review of comparative analysis of urban mobility behavior. The review found that travel choices in both MENA and the SA regions are impacted by the usual determinants such as demography, socio-economic characteristics, vehicle ownership, and the quality and maturity of (urban transport) spatial forms. The mobility behavior in these regions, is to some extent, can be said to be in alignment with the observed behavior across the developed western cities elsewhere in Europe and North America. The review identified that in both the MENA and the SA regions, mobility choices are also influenced by certain additional factors, such as cultural norms, adverse climatic conditions and socio-economic standings, etc. The literature indicates that ethnic and income disparities are deeply embedded in the socio-spatial arrangements of the cities in the MENA and SA regions. Future research can assess the relative influence of these factors and to determine correlations between mobility attitudes and urban forms to build better cities.

Research on the Spatial Expansion Characteristics and Industrial and Policy Driving Forces of Chengdu–Chongqing Urban Agglomeration Based on NPP-VIIRS Night Light Remote Sensing Data

In the context of rapid urbanization development, exploring the driving forces and characteristics of urban agglomerations’ spatial expansion not only enriches the depth and breadth of research on urban agglomerations’ expansion in China, but also has great significance for future urban development planning, rational utilization of land resources, and protection of ecological environment. This study selects nighttime light data to extract the built-up areas of the Chengdu–Chongqing urban agglomeration from 2012 to 2020, and uses urban expansion speed, urban expansion intensity, urban center of gravity migration, compactness, and fractal dimension index, combined with driving force analysis, to explore its development. The results show the following: (1) From 2012 to 2020, the Chengdu–Chongqing urban agglomeration expanded around Chengdu and Chongqing, and the expansion scale of each city first increased and then decreased. (The expansion scale is a comprehensive result obtained by using the formula of urban expansion speed and expansion intensity, indicating the extent of urban expansion.) (2) The expansion direction of the Chengdu–Chongqing urban agglomeration keeps close to Chengdu and Chongqing. The urban spatial form is not stable and begins to focus on urban interior filling. (Urban interior filling refers to the infrastructure construction and content enrichment and renewal within an urban built-up area.) (3) The spatio-temporal expansion of the Chengdu–Chongqing urban agglomeration from 2012 to 2020 is most affected by the levels of economic development and regional investment.

Relationship between urban spatial form and seasonal land surface temperature under different grid scales

The urban heat island (UHI) effect is intensifying with increasing urbanization. As an important representation of the UHI effect and the urban thermal environment, it is critical to investigate the importance of evaluating urban spatial form (USF) indicators on land surface temperature (LST) to alleviate urban thermal environment problems. Therefore, in this study, we evaluated the importance of USF indicators from three perspectives: landscape pattern, building morphology, and social development, on LST at 10 grid scales in the main area of Xi'an City, using the XGBoost model. The results showed that: (1) LST was similar in spring and autumn, but significantly lower in winter. The distribution of high-temperature areas in the four seasons has its own characteristics, but the low-temperature areas are mainly distributed in the water bodies and parks in the north and south of the middle of the study area, which are less affected by the seasons. (2) Mean architecture height (MAH) is a seasonal stable factor with a cooling effect. The relationship between patch density (PD), landscape shape index (LSI), Shannon's diversity index (SHDI), contagion index (CONTAG), people density (POD), floor area ratio (FAR) and LST varies with seasons. The correlation between building density (BD) and LST is complex. (3) The degree of influence of the USF indicators on seasonal LST could be ranked in the following order: building morphology > landscape pattern > social development. (4) The appropriate size to study the relationship between USF and seasonal LST is 60 m. The highest contribution of USF to LST is building morphology, three indicators affect 43%–55% of LST. The findings of this study provide useful information for urban land-use planning and building layout, to mitigate the UHI effect.

Research on Gridding of Urban Spatial Form Based on Fractal Theory

Urban spatial form is a significant reference to getting to know cities and running the cities. The fractal theory is an effective means to quantify urban spatial form. Taking the buildings in the outer ring of Zhengzhou City as the research object, the basic architectural models are built by extracting their forms. The research site is subdivided into 199 regions. The distribution of architectural forms in Zhengzhou is analyzed by fractal theory and spatial autocorrelation from the perspective of two-dimensional(2D) and three-dimensional(3D). The results indicate that the architectural layout of Zhengzhou has distinct fractal characteristics; Both global spatial autocorrelation and local spatial autocorrelation show significant positive correlations; There are obvious spatial differences in architectural space forms in different regions. The refined grid analysis strengthens the understanding of the urban spatial structure and development rules in more detail. The study promotes the refinement and visualization of fractal theory effectively and improves the depth of urban spatial form cognition.

Urban spatial form analysis based on the architectural layout -- Taking Zhengzhou City as an example.

The analysis of urban spatial form is the basic research of urban development. Traditional fractal research often focuses on the urban spatial layout, which cannot visually express the specific form, change characteristics and development trend of urban architectural spaces.The urban architectural form is simplified and the basic architectural form templates are extracted, and then, the correlations between architecture form and fractal dimension are built. The results of the case study show that the architectural layout of Zhengzhou City exhibits obvious fractal characteristics, and the combination of the two-dimensional and three-dimensional fractal dimensions is helpful for comprehensively revealing the architectural layout information. Moreover, the fractal dimension of buildings shows that the gradient from the inner to outer ring decreases, similar to the 'annual growth rings' of trees. Obvious differences exist in the fractal dimensions of urban buildings in different directions, reflecting the urban expansion direction. This study promotes the visualization of fractal theory and the expression of fractal theory in spatial gradient, providing theoretical and data reference for urban spatial form optimization.

Urban Growth Boundaries Delineation under Multi-Objective Constraints from the Perspective of Humanism and Low-Carbon Concept

Urban growth boundaries (UGBs) play an important role in controlling urban sprawl and protecting natural ecosystems. Traditional methods mainly focus on the heterogeneity of regional resources and environment rather than residents’ behavioral activities. However, residents’ behavioral activities are one of the most important factors influencing urban spatial form. Fortunately, the emergence of big data, especially phone signaling data, provides alternative data sources to understand the dynamic resident behavior activity space, which is significant for people-oriented urban development. Therefore, we propose a novel framework for UGB delineation based on multi-source big data and multi-objective constraints, which emphasizes humanism and the low-carbon concept in urban expansion simulation. The multi-objective constraints are constructed from the evaluation of resident activity space expansion potential, the evaluation of urban construction suitability, the evaluation of ecological conservation importance, and the human survival materials limitation. We apply the framework to Ningbo, and the results show that the framework under multi-objective constraints from a people-oriented and low-carbon perspective is more reliable and comprehensive than that without constraints. The findings also show that the UGB delineation based on multi-source big data has higher accuracy and better performance. The conceptual and methodological advances of this study are also applicable to other cities to help UGBs delineation.

Spatio-temporal evolution analysis of spatial form in Nanfeng based on spatial syntax

ABSTRACT Urban space is the carrier of human social life, and its form plays an important role in urban development. We here employ space syntax model to analyse the urban morphology of Nanfeng in the city of Fuzhou, China during five time periods: the late Qing Dynasty, 1960, 2004, 2014, and 2021. Results show that the spatial form of Nanfeng has gone through three stages: concentrated development, axial development, and decentralized development. The spatial development of Nanfeng is concentrated in the south and dispersed in the north. The direction of the urban spatial form is consistent with the development direction of the integrated core centre, and the transfer of the urban center is synchronized with the evolution of the spatial form. The ancient city is centred on a ‘cross’ street structure with a relatively dense and complex internal spatial texture, and the overall space of the new city is sparse and has a grid-like form. Here, we reveal the development patterns of urban spatial forms under urbanization, and provide guidance for the protection of ancient cities and the sustainable development of new cities as well as for urban spatial optimization.

The Formation of a Polycentric City in Transitional China in a Three-Level Analysis Framework: The Case Study of Hangzhou

Given cities’ different development backgrounds, the spatial evolution of each city has a path-dependent development track. Understanding the characteristics of urban spatial structure evolution in contemporary China is essential for sustainable urban development. By establishing a theoretical framework comprising a macro-background, planning tool, and resource allocation, this paper takes Hangzhou as an example to analyze the evolutionary process of the polycentric spatial structure and reveal the formation characteristics of its polycentric urban spatial form. The results show that (1) its institutional background and planning tools are the driving forces behind the formation of the polycentric structure in Hangzhou, i.e., the evolution of the polycentric structure mainly relies on planning guidance and government forces rather than being market-driven. (2) Under the government-led mode of polycentric formation, urban elements, such as education, medical care, transportation, and green space, are still concentrated in the main urban center, while subcenters lack the necessary public facilities and are underdeveloped. (3) The spatial distribution of the population and nightlights also shows the trend of diminishing concentric circles with the main center at the core. Therefore, it is impossible to implement polycentric cities by decentralizing the population and industries alone. The comprehensive consideration of capital investment, production services, and the supply of life service facilities is also required. This empirical study can complement empirical evidence in order to verify the validity of polycentrism as a potential solution that can alleviate the sprawl of central urban areas.

The importance of the functional mixed entropy for the explanation of residential and transport CO2 emissions in the urban center of China

The influence of urban spatial form on the environment is complex and lengthy. The spatial analysis for the urban form and residential-related CO2 emissions at the city scale is challenging due to the lack of extensive urban form data and fine-grain CO2 emission maps. This research uses remote sensing data and downscaling interpolation to generate residential and transport (RTCE) maps in 130 m spatial resolution of urban center regions from 31 major cities in China, then investigates the relationship between 3 types of urban form indicators (Internal characteristics, external morphology, and development intensity) and RTCE through Geographical Weighted Regression method. The results reveal that urban form indicators could explain about 45.9% of RTCE. The 2D building shape indicator has the second greatest positive impact as the external morphology indicator, which complicates the influence. The internal characteristics indicators have relatively strong influences than the development intensity indicators. For instance, the influence of functional mixed entropy (FME) is the greatest positive influence and decreases exponentially with FME increases. Therefore, cities with the FME lower than the threshold (0.28) should increase it appropriately, while cities with the FME around and larger than 0.28 should maintain and probably reduce it.

Exploring the factors affecting urban ecological risk: A case from an Indian mega metropolitan region

Assessment of ecological risk (ER) is a key approach to adapting and mitigating ecological deterioration in cities of developing countries. In developing countries, the ecological landscapes such as vegetation cover, water bodies, and wetlands are highly vulnerable due to rapid urban expansion. Therefore, urban ER (UER) assessment and its drivers are crucial to guide ecological protection as well as restoration. This study aims to explore the spatiotemporal pattern of UER and the impact of urban spatial form on UER in the Kolkata Megacity Region (KMR), India. This study developed a UER index and used spatial regression models across the urban centres. The ER has been assessed at city scale as well as grid-scale (2 km × 2 km and 5 km × 5 km) from 2000 to 2020. The results showed that ER has substantially increased over the last 20 years. The urban centres with very high and high ER substantially increased, i.e. from 21.95% in 2000 to 31.70% in 2020. Kolkata and its surrounding urban centres were mostly characterized by very high and high ER. ER was influenced by spatial variables (such as land use and landscapes pattern). However, remote sensing parameters were weakly related to ER. The spatial lag model (SLM) (R2 = 0.8686) was found to be better fit model than spatial error model (SEM) (R2 = 0.8661) and ordinary linear regression model (OLS) (R2 = 0.8641). Thus, the findings of the study can improve research and a comprehensive framework for urban ecological resources and provide a scientific basis for urban ecosystem planning and restoration. In addition to this, it will guarantee the sustainable utilization of urban ecosystems.

Research on Automatic Generation Method of Urban Spatial Form Based on Parameter Translation——Taking the Planning of Suijiang New Town in Guangning County as an example

With the development and innovation of computer technology such as artificial intelligence, traditional urban design has an opportunity to reform and innovate. This paper proposes a set of automatic urban spatial form generation design proceses based on the parameter translation, taking the design of the Suijiang New Town Project in Guangning County, Guangdong province as an example. For different parameter types, three design methods, which are morphological control of key factors, rule formulation of multi-agent, and iterative optimization of design mode are summarized and compared. The three design methods are applied in process of "data investigation, parameter translation, stepwise generation, and iterative optimization" based on the single static parameter, multiple static parameters, and multiple dynamic parameters respectively, and established a generation system for different design objects and design stage. Research provides a solution for the practical application of parametric design and lays a foundation for the future development of the parametric urban design.

Research on Automatic Generation Method of Urban Spatial Form Based on Parameter Translation——Taking the Planning of Suijiang New Town in Guangning County as an example

With the development and innovation of computer technology such as artificial intelligence, traditional urban design has an opportunity to reform and innovate. This paper proposes a set of automatic urban spatial form generation design proceses based on the parameter translation, taking the design of the Suijiang New Town Project in Guangning County, Guangdong province as an example. For different parameter types, three design methods, which are morphological control of key factors, rule formulation of multi-agent, and iterative optimization of design mode are summarized and compared. The three design methods are applied in process of "data investigation, parameter translation, stepwise generation, and iterative optimization" based on the single static parameter, multiple static parameters, and multiple dynamic parameters respectively, and established a generation system for different design objects and design stage. Research provides a solution for the practical application of parametric design and lays a foundation for the future development of the parametric urban design.

Spatial ordering of informal sector activities in African cities: perspectives and lessons from the development of informal sector in Nigeria

ABSTRACT Informal Sector Activities (ISAs) dominate the economy in most African cities, and they continue to proliferate without consideration for environmental sustainability. This study analysed spatial ordering of ISAs in four Nigerian cities, selected for their differential urban forms and social practices. The study assessed the conformity of the spatial ordering of ISAs with industrial location principles, the implications of urban spatial form and government/policy makers’ awareness of environmental consequences of ISAs spatial ordering. The ISAs were identified, classified and sampled, and their GPS coordinates were used in mapping the ISAs on Landsat images in an ArcGIS environment. Findings show that the existing ISAs do not conform to locational principles. Poor governance and environmental awareness of policy/decision makers explains the poor spatial ordering of ISAs.

Thermal comfort differences between urban villages and formal settlements in Chinese developing cities: A case study in Shenzhen

Rapid urbanization has changed the urban spatial form, which directly leads to the emergence of urban informal settlements, and the impact on ecological environment is manifested as the obvious deterioration of urban thermal environment. The thermal environment of informal settlements, which are called urban villages in China, is seriously deteriorated. In the process of urban renewal, we should pay attention to the thermal environment effect of urban villages and promote the sustainable development of cities. However, at present there are few studies on the differences of thermal comfort among urban settlements. Taking Shenzhen as an example city, this paper distinguished several scopes such as urban villages, formal settlements and non-urban areas, then analyzed the pattern characteristics of urban thermal comfort by using the Modified Temperature and Humidity Index (MTHI), and finally explored the spatial relationship between thermal comfort and various environmental factors through spatial regression models. The results show that (1) thermal comfort has significant spatial autocorrelation and the thermal environment centers are clustered in built-up areas of Shenzhen city. The overall MTHI of urban villages is relatively the highest, and the dominant thermal comfort level in summer is sultry and hot. (2) According to the Spatial Error Model, the green space coverage represented by NDVI has the strongest mitigation effect on urban thermal comfort, and the building density has an obvious aggravating effect on the muggy environment. Both of them have more obvious effects on the thermal comfort of informal settlements. (3) The current thermal environment of urban settlements cannot be ignored, especially in urban villages. In the process of urban renewal, heat dissipation should be considered emphatically. Increasing urban green area and decreasing building density will help to improve urban thermal environment. The study can provide suggestions for urban renewal from the perspective of improving thermal environment.

Analysis of the Spatio-Temporal Characteristics of Nanjing’s Urban Expansion and Its Driving Mechanisms

The expansion and evolution of urban areas are the most perceptible manifestations of the transformation of the urban spatial form. This study uses remote sensing images of Nanjing from 2001, 2006, 2011, 2016, and 2021, along with socio-economic data to analyse the spatio-temporal characteristics of the city’s urban expansion. Furthermore, we utilize a binary logistic regression to quantitatively analyse the driving forces in each stage. We find that from 2001 to 2021, Nanjing’s urban area expanded approximately 3.97 times. Notably, the city started moving from a stage of medium-speed development to rapid development in 2006, and then slowed down and returned to medium-speed development in 2011. The urban land mainly expanded in the north, northeast, southeast, and southwest directions in a lopsided cross-shape roughly along the northwest-southeast direction; meanwhile, the city’s centre of gravity continuously moved towards the southeast. Among the driving factors, neighbourhood (distance from planned commercial centres, railways, and highways), topography, and geolocation (distance from the Yangtze River, and elevation) had a greater, albeit inhibitory effect on urban expansion. However, the effects of different socio-economic factors (GDP per capita, resident population, secondary and tertiary industry, etc.) varied across different time periods.