Urban Rabies Research Articles

A Comparative Study of the RAPINA and the Virus-Neutralizing Test (RFFIT) for the Estimation of Antirabies-Neutralizing Antibody Levels in Dog Samples.

The mass vaccination of dogs against rabies is a highly rational strategy for interrupting the natural transmission of urban rabies. According to the World Organization for Animal Health (OIE) and the World Health Organization (WHO), the immunization of at least 70% of the total dog population minimizes the risk of endemic rabies. Knowledge of the virus-neutralizing antibody (VNA) level against the rabies virus (RABV) is required to evaluate protective immunity and vaccine coverage of dogs in the field. The rapid focus fluorescent inhibition test (RFFIT) and the fluorescent antibody virus neutralization (FAVN) test are recommended by OIE and WHO to determine the VNA levels in serum. However, these tests are cell culture based and require the use of live viruses and specialized equipment. The rapid neutralizing antibody test (RAPINA) is a novel, immunochromatographic test that uses inactivated virus to estimate the VNA level qualitatively. It is a simple, rapid and inexpensive, although indirect, assay for the detection of VNA levels. The RAPINA has shown good positive and negative predictive values and a high concordance with the RFFIT results. In this study, we compared the performance of the two tests for evaluating the vaccination status of dogs in the Philippines, Thailand and Japan. A total of 1135 dog sera were analysed by the RAPINA and compared to the VNA levels determined by the RFFIT. The overall positive and negative predictive values of the RAPINA were 96.2-99.3% and 84.5-94.8%, respectively, with a concordance (kappa) of 0.946-0.97 among the three countries. The RAPINA results were highly homologous and reproducible among different laboratories. These results suggest that this test is appropriate to survey vaccination coverage in countries with limited resources.

Persistence of Rabies Virus-Neutralizing Antibodies after Vaccination of Rural Population following Vampire Bat Rabies Outbreak in Brazil.

BackgroundAnimal control measures in Latin America have decreased the incidence of urban human rabies transmitted by dogs and cats; currently most cases of human rabies are transmitted by bats. In 2004–2005, rabies outbreaks in populations living in rural Brazil prompted widespread vaccination of exposed and at-risk populations. More than 3,500 inhabitants of Augusto Correa (Pará State) received either post-exposure (PEP) or pre-exposure (PrEP) prophylaxis. This study evaluated the persistence of rabies virus-neutralizing antibodies (RVNA) annually for 4 years post-vaccination. The aim was to evaluate the impact of rabies PrEP and PEP in a population at risk living in a rural setting to help improve management of vampire bat exposure and provide additional data on the need for booster vaccination against rabies.Methodology/Principal FindingsThis prospective study was conducted in 2007 through 2009 in a population previously vaccinated in 2005; study participants were followed-up annually. An RVNA titer >0.5 International Units (IU)/mL was chosen as the threshold of seroconversion. Participants with titers ≤0.5 IU/mL or Equivalent Units (EU)/mL at enrollment or at subsequent annual visits received booster doses of purified Vero cell rabies vaccine (PVRV). Adherence of the participants from this Amazonian community to the study protocol was excellent, with 428 of the 509 (84%) who attended the first interview in 2007 returning for the final visit in 2009. The long-term RVNA persistence was good, with 85–88.0% of the non-boosted participants evaluated at each yearly follow-up visit remaining seroconverted. Similar RVNA persistence profiles were observed in participants originally given PEP or PrEP in 2005, and the GMT of the study population remained >1 IU/mL 4 years after vaccination. At the end of the study, 51 subjects (11.9% of the interviewed population) had received at least one dose of booster since their vaccination in 2005.Conclusions/SignificanceThis study and the events preceding it underscore the need for the health authorities in rabies enzootic countries to decide on the best strategies and timing for the introduction of routine rabies PrEP vaccination in affected areas.

Rabies Epidemiology and Control in Ecuador.

Objective:Describe the epidemiology and the control effort for rabies in Ecuador.Methods:This observational study included data from the Ecuadorian National Institute of Census and Statistics (INEC), and mortality and morbidity data reported by the Ministry of Public Health and the National Institute for Social Security. We conducted a phylogeny analyses to compare the N gene from the Challenge Virus Standard (CVS) vaccine strain used in Ecuador with published Cosmopolitan, Asian and Sylvatic strains. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to determine the significance of the data.Results:In 1996 Ecuador suffered the highest rate of rabies per capita in the Americas, with an incidence rate of 0.56 cases per 100 000 people per year. Human and canine rabies showed a sharp decline until 2012. Between 1994 and 2014, we found a correlation of 0.925 (p<0.01) between annual cases of dog and human rabies. In 2011, there was an epidemic of sylvatic rabies transmitted to people by vampire bats (Desmodus rotundus) in the Amazon region, specifically in Morona Santiago, leading to 11 fatalities. Phylogenetic analyses of the CVS vaccine N gene showed an association with urban canine rabies strains (the Cosmopolitan lineage and Asian strains), whereas sylvatic rabies, like those reported in the Amazon region, were found to be grouped in a different clade represented mainly by bat-derived strains.Conclusions:This study presents the first compilation of epidemiological data on rabies in Ecuador. The incidence of human and canine rabies, also known as urban rabies, has clearly decreased due to massive canine vaccination campaigns. Phylogenetic analysis of the prevailing vaccine used in the country showed a clear separation from bat-derived rabies, the source of recent rabies outbreaks. Efforts are ongoing to develop rabies vaccines that are highly specific to the rabies virus genotype circulating in the region, including sylvatic rabies. These efforts include the implementation of reverse genetics to generate recombinant virus coding for the prevailing glycoprotein gene.

Avaliação do Diagnóstico Laboratorial do Programa de Controle da Raiva Urbana no Rio de Janeiro, Brasil entre 2002-2011

Objective: Deaths caused by rabies is estimated to be 60,000 per year worldwide. In Brazil U$ 60 million are spent on human rabies prevention annually, and 400,000 people receive health care, including 270,000 receive at least one dose of rabies vaccine. This study intended to evaluate the urban rabies conditions control in Rio de Janeiro by checking the animal rabies diagnosis. A survey between 2002 and 2011 was conducted; 5,540 samples were examined for virus rabies presence, and 2,388 (43.10%) cases from Rio de Janeiro City, including 50.78% dogs, 17.46% cats, 15.73% bats, and 16.03% other species. The number of samples analyzed was lower than use to recommended by WHO. Although it is believed that rabies is controlled, there are still many areas that can be considered “silent areas” due to lack of forwarding samples to the laboratory and epidemiological surveillance. There is need to adapt the samples percentage sent to animal rabies diagnosis.

Levantamento e identificação dos aspectos epidemiológicos da raiva canina no município de Cuiabá - MT

Reconhecida desde a antiguidade, a raiva é uma infecção aguda do sistema nervoso central que acomete mamíferos, sendo causada por um RNA vírus da família Rabidoviridae, gênero Lyssavírus. O Brasil, desde a implantação do programa de controle da raiva em áreas urbanas, vem apresentando um declínio de casos de raiva em cães e em seres humanos. Em Cuiabá, as atividades realizadas pelo Centro de Controle de Zoonoses voltadas para o controle da raiva como: vacinação antirrábica animal, bloqueios de foco, captura de animais errantes, entre outros, permitiu o bloqueio da circulação do vírus na espécie canina. Desde 2008, o município de Cuiabá não registra nenhum caso da doença na espécie canina. Com o objetivo de conhecer a distribuição temporal da raiva canina em Cuiabá- MT, assim como identificar os aspectos epidemiológicos dos cães infectados pelo vírus rábico e verificar as medidas de profilaxia para a raiva canina, adotadas pelo Centro de Controle de Zoonose do município de Cuiabá no período de janeiro de 2002 a dezembro de 2008, realizou-se o presente estudo. Para o estudo observacional descritivo foi empregado o banco de dados referente à série histórica do CCZ e do Laboratório de Apoio a Saúde Animal - LASA ambos situados no município de Cuiabá- MT. O período de estudo foi de janeiro de 2002 a dezembro de 2008. Neste período foram examinadas 1021 amostras de cérebro de cães, destas 8,71% (89/1021) foram positivas e 91,29% (932/1021) negativas para a raiva. Os meses de maior incidência da doença foram os meses de janeiro 15,05% (14/93), fevereiro 12,5% (9/72), março 12,5% (9/72), abril 14,14% (9/72) e dezembro 13,69% (10/73). O maior número de cães doentes era macho 59,55% (53/89) com idade acima de dois anos 50,55% (45/89) e não domiciliados 67,41% (60/89). Em relação à imunoprofilaxia, a maioria dos cães 99,63% foi vacinada em campanhas. A cobertura vacinal ficou acima dos 80% exceto em 2006. Entre os animais que apresentaram a enfermidade o maior número, 67,41% (60/89), foi de cães não domiciliados, os chamados cães errantes. O percentual de cães domiciliados infectados pelos VR foi igual a 32,58% (29/89). As campanhas de vacinação, portanto, são fundamentais para a imunização do maior número de animais possível e a sociedade deve se conscientizar sobre a importância da raiva e as medidas que devem ser tomadas para controlá-la.

Rabies epidemiology and control in Turkey: past and present

SUMMARYTurkey is the only country in Europe where urban dog-mediated rabies persists. Control measures in recent decades have reduced the burden of rabies to relatively low levels but foci of disease still persist, particularly in urban areas. Occasional human cases result from this persistence although the source of these appears to be both dog and wildlife reservoirs. This review considers the current state of rabies in Turkey including current control measures, the varying epidemiology of the disease throughout this country and the prospects for rabies elimination.

Brote de rabia urbana transmitida por perros en el distrito de Santa Marta, Colombia, 2006-2008

An urban rabies outbreak occurred in the District of Santa Marta between April 2006 and January 2008, which resulted in the deaths of 4 humans and 28 dogs. Three objectives were entertained-first, the diagnostic laboratory techniques were described as well as the rabies control actions taken; second, the impact of anti-rabies dog vaccination was assessed in terms of neutralizing antibody seroconversion; and third, the epidemiological significance and public health implications of the outbreak were examined. Rabies diagnosis was achieved by direct immunofluorescence, inoculation of mice and immunohistochemistry. Typing of the virus was achieved by indirect immunofluorescence. Control activities included a dog population census, vaccination and treatments for persons exposed to rabies, mass vaccination of dogs and cats, and initiation of a community education program. Seroconversion was investigated by capture ELISA. Antigenic variant 1 was detected in all cases. Of vaccinated dogs, 77% were seropositive, and 47% were seroprotected against rabies. No differences were found in the humoral response between dog gender; however significant differences in dog seroprotection were discovered between localized comunities in Santa Marta. The 2006-2008 urban rabies outbreak was the largest reported in a city in Colombia. It was caused by rabid dogs, and demonstrated that these animals are still a threat for human health despite the existence of efficient rabies vaccines. The control of the outbreak was achieved 20 months after the first rabies case in dogs, and 14 months after the initiation of the first mass vaccination of animals. The necessity of implementation and maintenance of rabies control strategies is underlined for minimizing human risk.

Molecular analysis of urban rabies case from vampire bat in Corrientes, Argentina

&lt;p&gt;En abril de 2006 se detectó virus de la rabia (RABV) en un gato doméstico de la ciudad de Corrientes, Argentina. La caracterización molecular identificó al murciélago Desmodus rotundus como la fuente viral. El análisis genético de 22 cepas de RABV aisladas de D. rotundus obtenidos entre 1998–2006 en Argentina, reveló la cocirculación de dos linajes genéticos en la Provincia de Corrientes. La alteración por parte del hombre, del ecosistema del murciélago en la región, podría explicar los cambios en su comportamiento y en la circulación del virus de la rabia.&lt;/p&gt;

Situación actual y control de la rabia en el Perú

Rabies is an endemic disease of Peru, that appears in two cycles, one urban related with transmission by dog, and another wild caused mainly by vampires bats bite. Most of human cases of the last decades they have been by urban rabies, nevertheless the used measures of control (canine vaccine campaigns, vaccine production, identification of biting dog, opportune attention of the victim and surveillance and notification system) they have managed to reduce the incidence of canine rabies and therefore of the human cases. Currently the greater number of human cases notified are caused by Desmodus rotundus in Peru.

Ten-year (1993 - 2002) retrospective evaluation of vaccination of dogs against rabies at the University of Ibadan, Nigeria

Record books in form of one thousand, four hundred and seventy eight (1478) registers, case notes and vaccination certificates of registered dogs were assessed for rabies vaccination and its booster coverage. The dogs which consisted of 850 males and 628 females were presented at the Small Animal and Preventive Veterinary Medicine Clinics, Veterinary Teaching Hospital, University of Ibadan between January 1993 and December 2002. Among the registered dogs, 155 (10.5%) with annual mean of 9.1 ± 9.1% were vaccinated. Although more females (83 or 13.2%) were vaccinated than male dogs (72 or 8.5%), the difference was not significant (p>0.05). Most vaccinated dogs (121 or 78.1%), were at the initial vaccination age of 3 months and had the highest vaccination coverage (51 dogs (males and females) or 44.3%) while 53 (males and females) dogs (43.8%) were adequately vaccinated. Also, 12 (35.3%) among 34 dogs with booster vaccination were adequately protected against rabies. The current study showed increase in registration of dogs and the cost of vaccination in the clinics. However declined vaccination and booster coverages were observed compared to the previous 5 - year observations of 36.5% vaccination and 59.5% booster coverages. These observations were far below the recommendation of WHO (1989, 1990, 2001) to prevent urban rabies epizootics and epidemics in the area. Since rabies is zoonotic, the study indicated increase danger of contracting rabies by veterinarians, their assistants, dog owners, their family members and the general public. Keywords : dog-rabies, zoonosis, vaccination and booster coverage, public health, Nigeria African Journal of Biomedical Research Vol. 8(2) 2005: 71-77

The molecular epidemiology of rabies associated with chiropteran hosts in Mexico

While large-scale dog vaccination campaigns have significantly reduced urban rabies throughout Mexico, reports of sylvatic rabies, including cases of spill-over of bat strains into livestock and humans, are increasing. To improve knowledge of these epidemiological trends, 64 Mexican rabies virus isolates from various host species, have been characterized. Phylogenetic analysis at the viral P locus identified distinct viral strains associated with terrestrial reservoirs (dog, skunk and fox/bobcat) and a variant associated with the insectivorous bat, T. brasiliensis, consistent with prior reports. Of the two distinct clades of viruses associated with the vampire bat reservoir, one comprised just four specimens and formed an outlying group to all other vampire bat rabies isolates including those from South America and the Caribbean, a finding consistent with the early emergence of the vampire bat reservoir in Mexico. Antigenic variation of the vampire bat specimens did not correlate with the main genetic groupings; moreover complete N gene sequence analysis of selected specimens indicated limited variation within the encoded nucleoprotein that could form the basis of antigenic variation. A single isolate recovered from a cat represents a new viral variant not previously identified in North America that probably circulates in a species of insectivorous bat.

A descriptive study of urban rabies during the civil war in Sierra Leone: 1995-2001.

A study was conducted to assess the effects of the breakdown in internal infrastructure on the incidence of canine-transmitted human rabies in urban areas of Sierra Leone during the course of the civil war between 1995 and 2001. Data from provincial hospitals in the Western Area and Southern Province indicated that there was a significant increase in the incidence of canine-transmitted urban human rabies chi2 = 39.63, p < 0.0001, particularly among children chi2 = 23.73, p < 0.0001, over the course of the war. In the Western Area in 2001, towards the end of the war, there was a significant increase in adult cases, which was reflected in the observed versus the expected chi2 ratio (70 versus 53). Interview-based questionnaire surveys in Freetown administered between 2001 and 2002 indicated that dogs were commonly kept for security reasons, and were largely unrestrained and unlicensed, regardless of the socioeconomic status of the owner. Virtually all dogs were unvaccinated and were mainly living in close proximity with humans. This study indicated that there is an urgent requirement for appropriate mass rabies vaccination campaigns for pet dogs and for campaigns to manipulate the urban habitat to control free-roaming and wandering but owned dog populations in Freetown and other urban areas in the provinces of Sierra Leone. Interview-based questionnaires administered in three districts of Freetown indicated a relatively high degree of uniformity in dog husbandry and veterinary care habits across a wide range of socioeconomic status categories in dog owners.

Epidemiología molecular de epizootias de rabia en Colombia, 1994-2002: evidencia de rabia humana y canina asociada a quirópteros.

Three urban rabies outbreaks have been reported in Colombia during the last two decades, one of which is ongoing in the Caribbean region (northern Colombia). The earlier outbreaks occurred almost simultaneously in Arauca (eastern Colombia) and in the Central region, ending in 1997. Phylogenetic relationships among rabies viruses isolated from the three areas were based on a comparison of cDNA fragments coding for the endodomain of protein G and a fragment of L protein obtained by RT-PCR. The sequenced amplicons which included the G-L intergenic region contained 902 base pairs. Phylogenetic analysis showed three distinct groups of viruses. Colombian genetic variant I viruses were isolated only from Arauca and the Central region, but are now apparently extinct. Colombian genetic variant II viruses were isolated in the Caribbean region and are still being transmitted in that area. The third group of bat rabies variants were isolated from two insectivorous bats, three domestic dogs and a human. This associates bat rabies virus with rabies in Colombian dogs and humans, and indicates bats to be a rabies reservoir of public health significance.

Rabies

Rabies

Epizootic canine rabies transmitted by coyotes in south Texas

Summary Prior to 1988, rabies was reported only sporadically in coyotes. However, in the final 4 months of 1988, Starr County, Tex, which is situated on the US-Mexico border, experienced an epizootic of canine rabies, consisting of 6 laboratory-confirmed cases of rabies in coyotes and of 2 cases in domestic dogs. The first 3 cases were detected in coyotes, and the first case in a domestic dog was observed 84 days after the index case. Adjacent Hidalgo County reported 9 cases of rabies in dogs during the same time that rabid dogs were being reported in Starr County. In 1989, the epizootic primarily involved dogs: 15 dogs in Starr County and 19 dogs in Hidalgo County. Five rabid coyotes were reported in Starr County in 1989, and 1 rabid coyote was reported from Hidalgo County. In 1990, rabies was reported in 3 coyotes and in 31 dogs in Starr County; cases were not detected in Hidalgo County. During 1991, the epizootic expanded approximately 160 km northward, resulting in laboratory-confirmed cases in 42 coyotes and 25 dogs in 10 counties. In 1992, Webb and Willacy Counties became involved; 70 rabid coyotes and 41 rabid dogs were reported in 1992 from the 12-county area. During the first 6 months of 1993, there were 31 rabid coyotes and 38 rabid dogs reported from the same 12 south Texas counties. In May 1993, a raccoon infected with the canine rabies ecotype was reported from Cameron County. Antigenic and genetic analysis revealed the virus ecotype affecting dogs and coyotes to be that associated with urban canine rabies along the US-Mexico border.

Veterinary public health : perpectives at the threshold of the 21th century

Veterinary public health (VPH) is a term officially used by the World Health Organisation (WHO) to provide a conceptual framework and programmatic structure for those public health activities which involve the application of knowledge, expertise and resources in veterinary medicine towards the protection and improvement of human health. It serves as the "linkage" between agriculture and public health. The principles on which VPH is based are deeply rooted in the biological, physical and social sciences, and are widely shared in agriculture, medicine and the environmental sciences. It involves not only veterinarians but also professionals from a host of other disciplines. VPH is dynamic in its scope and functions, and future perspectives are defined by the changing policy and priorities of the health and agriculture sectors. VPH continuously explores the horizons of public health needs for new opportunities in which veterinary medicine has a comparative advantage. The control and eradication of zoonoses and food protection remain the prominent functions of VPH. In the region of the Americas, VPH forms one of the central approaches in the strategic orientation and programme priorities of the health sector, having three strategic foci: the elimination of urban rabies, the eradication of foot and mouth disease, and food protection. The programme of technical cooperation covers the following components: zoonoses, foot and mouth disease, food protection, biomedical models, education and training in veterinary public health, and the development of veterinary public health services.

Prevention in areas with both urban and sylvatic rabies

Prevention in areas with both urban and sylvatic rabies

Program for the elimination of urban rabies in Latin America.

The status of rabies in Latin America and the Caribbean is described. The probable evolution of rabies is described. The probable evolution of rabies is analyzed, especially with respect to the effect of urbanization in the large cities of the hemisphere and its possible impact on the epidemiology of urban rabies. Several alternatives for the control of rabies are discussed, as are the strategies for their implementation at the continental, subregional, and country levels.

Serological results of a dog vaccination compaign against rabies in Peru.

Summary: Urban rabies is a significant problem in many Latin American coun­ tries. The authors describe the rabies situation from 1980 through September 1986 in Peru, especially in Lima and Callao, and present the organisational ap­ proach and the results of the mass campaign in which around 270,000 dogs (65% of the estimated dog population) were vaccinated within one month. Reported rabies cases declined sharply. No new human case was observed. A serological survey was conducted to determine the immune response, under field conditions, of a randomly selected sample of Peruvian dogs 2 to 3, 6, 9 and 12 months after immunisation with a cell cultured, inactivated and adjuvanted rabies vaccine. Only 3 % of the 198 dogs from the 12-month sample had less than 0.5 IU/ml rabies neutralising antibody (the protective threshold defined by WHO); 87% had 1.0 IU/ml or more. These data demonstrate the excellent results obtained under field conditions with such a vaccine.