Urban Pest Control Research Articles

Pesticide poisoning in urban environments

Pesticides, including both natural and synthetic variants, have become an integral component of modern agriculture and urban pest management. They are crucial in mitigating crop losses by targeting a variety of pests, diseases, and weeds, thereby ensuring food security. However, the indiscriminate and rising use of pesticides globally, particularly in developing nations like India, raises significant environmental and health concerns. India is among the largest producers and consumers of pesticides, with unique usage patterns dominated by insecticides rather than herbicides. This paper explores the extensive classifications of pesticides based on chemical composition, toxicity, pest targets, modes of action, and points of entry. Furthermore, it examines the widespread issue of pesticide poisoning, highlighting causes such as self-poisoning, occupational hazards, and misuse in urban pest control. The rising trend of pesticide poisoning in both rural and urban areas underscores the urgent need for stricter regulations, improved training, and integrated pest management practices to mitigate health risks and promote environmental sustainability.

Hygienic-Sanitary and Good Manufacturing Evaluation of Chicken Cuts Marketed In Chókwè City

This study assessed the hygiene and health conditions of chicken cuts sold in Chókwè city. The checklist method was applied following Resolution RDC No. 216/04 to assess the hygiene and health conditions, verifying the adequacy or otherwise of the items evaluated. When the checklist was completed, the following was considered: (C) "Compliant" - commercial establishments that met a specific requirement, (NC) "Non-Compliant" - commercial establishments that did not comply with the observed requirement and (NA) "Not Applicable" for the requirement that was not met by the establishments surveyed. The results showed that the highest levels of compliance (20 to 100%) were found for the items building, facilities, equipment, furniture and utensils, sanitization of facilities, equipment, furniture and utensils, control of vectors and urban pests, water supply, waste management, handlers, raw materials and packaging, storage/preservation, display of meat except for documentation and registration. It can, therefore, be concluded that the establishments comply with good manufacturing practices. Contribution to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)SDG 3: Good Health and Well-BeingSDG 6: Clean Water and SanitationSDG 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and CommunitiesSDG 12: Responsible Consumption and ProductionSDG 15: Life on Land

Preliminary results for the breeding bird atlas of Bucharest (Romania): Data from 2016–2023

Urban bird atlases offer solid information about the distribution and breeding status of birds and can help in urban planning, education, research, pest control, and many other fields of work. In Romania, the first urban atlas was completed for Cluj city in 2017. Our study offers solid information about breeding birds from the capital city, Bucharest, the biggest city in Romania. Fieldwork was conducted with the help of volunteers in the period of April–June, from 5:00 to 10:00 AM, starting in 2016 and lasting until 2023. Data was collected from squares of 1x1 km, summing a total of 159 complete squares from the 251 covering the whole city, with over 70.000 bird observations. Mobile apps were used for data collection and orientation inside the monitoring squares. Before the atlas study started, few bird observations were recorded; since 2016, thousands of observations have been made, with new species being discovered every year. Occasional observations and data from artificial nests were accepted too. Because of the small number of recorders, we divided the squares into two classes of importance: the main area, which includes the squares inside a buffer zone of 6 km from the city center, and a secondary area for the rest of the squares, focusing our efforts to finish the squares in the main area. More volunteers are needed, and also new approaches to collecting data on nocturnal and invasive species.

Multifaceted roles of NADPH oxidases in the growth and pathogenicity of Beauveria bassiana

ABSTRACT Reactive oxygen species (ROS), synthesized by the nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NADPH) oxidase (Nox) complex, are vital molecules in biological cells, influencing various physiological processes such as fungal growth, development, and virulence. Beauveria bassiana, an entomopathogenic fungus, is a promising biopesticide for agricultural, forestry, and urban pest control. This study focuses on the characterization of NADPH oxidases (Noxs) in B. bassiana. Gene expression profiles of Noxs in B. bassiana (BbNoxs) were analysed using RT-qPCR. Knockout strains of single BbNoxA, BbNoxB, BbNoxR, and double BbNoxA and BbNoxB were constructed via homologous recombination, and their phenotypic characteristics were examined. Fungal virulence was evaluated using Galleria mellonella larvae, and infection structures formation and penetration ability were assessed on cicada wings. ROS production and actin assembly during fungal growth and infection were detected using staining and marker methods. Expression analysis revealed significant upregulation of BbNoxs during fungal growth and infection. Compared to the wild-type strain, single knockouts (ΔBbNoxA/B/R) and double knockout (ΔBbNoxAB) of BbNoxs exhibited reduced conidial yields, accelerated conidial germination rates. Deletion of BbNoxB or BbNoxR decreased fungal virulence compared to the WT strain in topical inoculation experiments. Additionally, loss of BbNoxB or BbNoxR impaired infection structures formation, penetration ability, ROS production, and actin aggregation during fungal infection. BbNoxs are crucial for fungal growth, development, and virulence in B. bassiana, playing essential roles in infection structures formation, penetration, ROS production, and actin assembly. Understanding their functions provides insights into B. bassiana’s pathogenic mechanisms.

Atividades econômicas relacionadas aos agrotóxicos e ao trabalho: para além da agropecuária

Abstract Introduction farmers are workers known to be exposed to pesticides. However, there are non-agricultural economic activities that are also exposed to these substances. Objective to identify classes of economic activities with potential for occupational exposure to pesticides. Methods the Brazilian National Classification of Economic Activities - CNAE 2.0 was used to identify economic activities related to pesticides, classifying them into agricultural and non-agricultural activities. To resolve inconsistencies, the subclass of CNAE 2.0 and the Brazilian Code of Occupations - CBO 2010 were used. Results 33 classes of economic activities were identified with the potential to expose workers to pesticides, 27 were classes of agricultural activities and six classes of non-agricultural activities. The six classes of economic activities not related to agriculture were (1) the manufacture of pesticides; (2) of sanitizers and disinfectants; (3) of medicines for veterinary use; (4) immunization and urban pest control in the private sector; (5) landscaping activity; (6) the regulation of health activities, education, cultural services and other social services. Conclusion the identification of economic activities not linked to agriculture that expose workers to pesticides allows the improvement of public policies that are inclusive of worker safety and health for the professional categories that comprise them.

The U.S. Capitol Grounds and Arboretum: an iconic landscape with a holistic approach to pest management

Abstract The care and maintenance of managed urban greenspaces require integrated pest management (IPM) strategies that are best suited for their local conditions. The evolution of IPM for the public grounds of the U.S. Capitol and Congress provides a unique perspective into the distinct challenges in developing and implementing an overall plant healthcare program for the nation’s historical landscape. The Capitol Grounds and Arboretum (CGA) staff of the Architect of the Capitol are the stewards of this urban greenspace, located in the center of Washington D.C., and present an overview of their historical, current, and prospective IPM developments for urban landscape pest control. With the adoption of holistic, ecological-based pest management practices, successful IPM examples in 3 different landscape habitats on Capitol Hill—turfgrass lawns, urban forestry, and ornamental horticulture display beds—are described. Ultimately, a list of current programming and future opportunities for expanding ecological IPM practices best suited for solving the CGA’s unique landscape pest management challenges are summarized.

Sensitization to avian and fungal proteins in different work environments

IntroductionHypersensitivity pneumonitis (HP) is usually caused by the inhalation of avian and fungal proteins. The present study assesses a cohort of Urban Pest Surveillance and Control Service (UPSCS) workers with high exposure to avian and fungal antigens, in order to identify their degree of sensitization and the potential risk of developing HP.MethodsWorkers were divided according to their work activity into Nest pruners (Group 1) and Others (Group 2). All individuals underwent a medical interview, pulmonary function tests and the determination of specific IgG antibodies. Antigenic proteins of pigeon sera were analysed using two-dimensional immunoblotting. Proteins of interest were sequenced by liquid-chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS).Results101 workers were recruited (76 men, average age: 42 yrs); (Group 1 = 41, Group 2 = 60). Up to 30% of the study population exhibited increased levels of IgGs to pigeon, small parrot and parrot, and up to 60% showed high levels of Aspergillus and Penicillium IgGs. In Group 1, specific parakeet and Mucor IgGs were higher (p = 0.044 and 0.003 respectively) while DLCO/VA% were lower (p = 0.008) than in Group 2. Two-dimensional immunoblotting showed protein bands of 20–30 KDa recognized by HP patients but not by workers. LC–MS analysis identified Ig Lambda chain and Apolipoprotein A-I as candidate proteins for distinguishing HP patients from exposed workers.ConclusionsTwo pigeon proteins were identified that may play a role in the development of pathological differences between HP patients and exposed workers. DLCO/VA may have a predictive value in the development of HP disease.

License to Cull: A Research Agenda for Investigating the Necropolitics of Countryside Culling and Urban Pest Control

Abstract This paper proposes an empirical research agenda for investigating the practices of biosecuritization of wild animal threats in modern society. Previously mostly studied on the lofty biopolitical level of directives on combatting invasive species or culling pests, we outline the conceptual and methodological points of entry for bringing the on-the-ground work of culling out-of-place, unwanted, individual animals and populations. This means a focus on necropolitics as constituted by the norms, everyday professional practices, vernaculars of killing, and identity work by pest controllers in the city and hunters on the countryside. Borrowing from research in the domestic animal killing context, we nevertheless show how wild animal killing is imbued with more spontaneity, remorse, aesthetics, public stigma, and multispecies entanglements, requiring adapted research protocols.

Pest Control in Primary Sector: Towards the Identification of Knowledge Gaps

Pest control provides important and useful services in rural and urban environments, activities, and value chains. Despite the significance of them, under operational, environmental and food security and safety terms, there are still gaps in the awareness level of targeted groups. Therefore, in the current work, we have carried out questionnaire-based surveillance to pest control operators in Greece and Cyprus, in an attempt to illustrate their knowledge regarding pest control in conjunction with demographic characteristics. In this context, the results underlined the need for further training in all aspects of pest control, but also relative activities that are often are operated by pest controllers, such as food safety activities and applications in the urban and sub-urban environment. The replies that had been obtained during the survey showed good correlations of knowledge with specific variables, such as the size of the company, the age group, and the educational background, in conjunction with the country in which the professional activities are carried out. To our knowledge, this is the first work of its kind, in terms of pest controllers’ perceptions and self-evaluation, illustrating specific knowledge gaps that have to be alleviated towards improved services in urban pest control, especially in sensitive urban areas and facilities, and improved measures for safety during the applications.

Detection and monitoring of bed bugs (Hemiptera: Cimicidae): review of the underlying science, existing products and future prospects.

Bed bugs, Cimex lectularius L. and C. hemipterus (F.) (Hemiptera: Cimicidae) are hematophagous ectoparasites of humans. Since the resurgence of bed bugs in the late 1990s there has been a corresponding emphasis on development and implementation of integrated pest management (IPM) programs to manage infestations. One critical requirement of IPM is the ability to detect and monitor the target pest. We outline and describe the majority of all known existing devices and technologies developed for bed bug detection and monitoring as well as much of the underlying science. Almost 40 detection and monitoring products have flooded the marketplace, but for various reasons, including price, size, complexity and lack of independent scientific evaluation, they have not been widely adopted for IPM in structures. One product, the ClimbUp® Insect Interceptor, has nine competitors that utilize a similar design. This review also discloses many other technologies and products that are either too expensive or too impractical for use as either consumer or industrial products. We conclude that there is a critical need for inexpensive and effective detection and monitoring traps and lures suitable for widespread adoption by the urban pest control industry. © 2021 Society of Chemical Industry.

Urban Entomology Highlights From 2020-Monitoring and Control of Urban Pests.

Pest management professionals aim to answer two primary questions for their customers: 1) 'Where/What is the pest?' and 2) 'How do I kill it?'. These two questions drive at the core of any pest management program. 2020 was an exciting year for entomology research, with much work being done on novel technologies and methods for detecting and controlling pests. The objectives of the current publication were to discuss papers published in 2020 that addressed the key pest management objectives of 1) monitoring and 2) controlling pest populations.

Are pesticides only a problem from rural areas? The case of a highly urbanised tropical mangrove (Fortaleza, CE, Brazil)

ABSTRACT The aim of the present study was to evaluate the occurrence and environmental partition of urban pesticides and the dependence of these compounds on the physicochemical properties of the sediment and water of the Ceará River (fluvial and mangrove regions) located on the tropical coast of northeast Brazil. Surface sediment and water were collected from each site. Dissolved oxygen, pH, temperature, conductivity, depth, turbidity, and salinity were measured in situ. Bifenthrin, deltamethrin, permethrin, imiprothrin, and malathion were analysed in both environmental matrices. An ecological risk assessment was performed using the risk quotient (RQ) calculated from responses of aquatic organisms to the target compounds compiled in the United States Environmental Protection Agency ECOTOXicology knowledgebase (ECOTOX). The highest concentrations were found for the urban pesticides cypermethrin, permethrin, and deltamethrin, ranging from 37.39 to 367.60, 44.49 to 226.45 ng L−1, and 60.99 to 170.56 ng L−1 in water and 270.99 to 623.99, 27.00 to 307.00 ng g−1 and 0.27 to 443.48 ng g−1, in sediment in dry weight, respectively. Malathion, cypermethrin, cyfluthrin, and deltamethrin are related to chemical control performed for combatting vectors of diseases. The main sources of permethrin and imiprothrin are household insecticides. Bifenthrin may be related to its use by specialised pest control services. The study of toxic effects and the ecological risk assessment revealed cyfluthrin to be extremely toxic to marine and estuarine organisms, followed by deltamethrin, bifenthrin, cypermethrin, and permethrin, whereas imiprothrin and malathion were classified as toxic and non-toxic, respectively. The urban pesticides investigated in this study were on the same level of magnitude as those found in agricultural areas, except for malathion and imiprothrin, the levels of which were higher due to the fact that these compounds are commonly used in urban pest control.

Toxico-Pathological Studies of the Insecticide Metasystox-R (Oxydemeton-Methyl) in Rabbits

One of the widely used insecticides in agriculture and urban pest control is oxydemeton-methyl, which is an organothiophosphate compound. It has a high bioaccumulation effect due to its increased solubility and mobility. This study was carried out to investigate the effect of oxydemeton-methyl toxicity on the environment, and female New Zealand rabbits were used as a model. The rabbits were given oxydemeton-methyl orally in drinking water at a concentration of 34 ppm for six weeks. The clinical signs were diarrhoea, emesis, salivation, lacrimation, fasciculation, muscle tremors and weakness. The haematological parameters, such as the RBCs count, the Hb concentration and the PCV % were significantly decreased. On the contrary, the WBCs count were significantly increased. In addition, an acetylcholinesterase enzyme was inhibited, and a histopathological examination on the liver showed small areas of oval and bridge necrosis infiltrated with mononuclear cells. In the kidneys, there was a variable degree of nephrosis, and the heart showed foci of myocardial degeneration infiltrated with mononuclear cells. Therefore, it is concluded that oxydemeton-methyl is highly toxic to the environment.

Habitat-specific densities of urban brushtail possums

Invasive mammalian pests threaten biodiversity globally across a diverse range of habitats. The unique combination of resource subsidies and disturbance in cities can provide favourable conditions for invasion. Recent interest in urban biodiversity enhancement has increased the demand for effective urban pest control, but efforts are often hampered by a lack of understanding of the ecology of urban invasive mammals. The Australian common brushtail possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) has invaded most New Zealand landscapes, including urban areas, and is a nationally significant pest species. Recent shifts in national pest control and conservation priorities demand an assessment of the capacity for urban areas to harbour possum populations. We estimated the density of possums across three representative habitat types within the city of Dunedin, New Zealand: an urban forest fragment and two residential areas of varying vegetation quality. Possums were live-trapped and camera-trapped over eight days at each site in late summer to early autumn. Spatially explicit capture-recapture methods were used to estimate density at each site, and “minimum number alive” estimates were also calculated. Our estimate suggests that the forest fragment supported possums at a density (3.1 ha−1) capable of inflicting harm on resident native wildlife, but this density was low compared with non-urban estimates in the same forest type, suggesting a possible influence of disturbance from human activity in and around the fragment. Few possums were caught at the two residential sites (0.1 ha−1 at each), and behavioural avoidance may have reduced capture success there. Our estimates confirm that urban areas are an important habitat for possums, and our study provides the first rigorous estimates of urban possum density, which can be incorporated into predictive modelling and other methods of control planning.

Effects of pyriproxyfen on zebrafish brain mitochondria and acetylcholinesterase

Pyriproxyfen is an insecticide used worldwide that acts as a biomimetic of juvenile hormone. This study investigated metabolic and synaptic impairments triggered by pyriproxyfen using zebrafish acetylcholinesterase (zbAChE) and mitochondria as markers. A brain zbAChE assay was performed in vitro and in vivo covering a range of pyriproxyfen concentrations (0.001–10 μmol/L) to assess inhibition kinetics. Docking simulations were performed to characterize inhibitory interactions. Zebrafish male adults were acutely exposed to 0.001, 0.01 and 0.1 μg/mL pyriproxyfen for 16 h. Mitochondrial respiration of brain tissues was assessed. ROS generation was estimated using H2DCF-DA and MitoSOX. Calcium transport was monitored by Calcium Green™ 5 N. NO synthesis activity was estimated using DAF-FM-DA. Brain acetylcholinesterase showed an in vivo IC20 of 0.30 μmol/L pyriproxyfen, and an IC50 of 92.5 μmol/L. The inhibitory effect on zbAChE activity was competitive-like. Respiratory control of Complex I/II decreased significantly after insecticide exposure. The MitoSOX test showed that O2− generation had a pyriproxyfen dose-dependent effect. Brain tissue lost 50% of Ca2+ uptake capacity at 0.1 μg/mL pyriproxyfen. Ca2+ release showed a clear mitochondrial impairment at lower pyriproxyfen exposures. Thus, Ca2+ transport imbalance caused by pyriproxyfen may be a novel deleterious mechanism of action. Overall, the results showed that pyriproxyfen can compromise multiple and interconnected pathways: (1) zbAChE impairment and (2) the functioning of the electron transport chain, ROS generation and calcium homeostasis in zebrafish brain mitochondria. Considering the many similarities between zebrafish and human, more caution is needed when pyriproxyfen is used in both urban and agricultural pest control.

Plant essential oils synergize various pyrethroid insecticides and antagonize malathion in Aedes aegypti.

.Pyrethroid resistance is a significant threat to agricultural, urban and public health pest control activities. Because economic incentives for the production of novel active ingredients for the control of public health pests are lacking, this field is particularly affected by the potential failure of pyrethroid‐based insecticides brought about by increasing pyrethroid resistance. As a result, innovative approaches are desperately needed to overcome insecticide resistance, particularly in mosquitoes that transmit deadly and debilitating pathogens. Numerous studies have demonstrated the potential of plant essential oils to enhance the efficacy of pyrethroids. The toxicity of pyrethroids combined with plant oils is significantly greater than the baseline toxicity of either oils or pyrethroids applied alone, which suggests there are synergistic interactions between components of these mixtures. The present study examined the potential of eight plant essential oils applied in one of two concentrations (1% and 5%) to enhance the toxicity of various pyrethroids (permethrin, natural pyrethrins, deltamethrin and β‐cyfluthrin). The various plant essential oils enhanced the pyrethroids to differing degrees. The levels of enhancement provided by combinations of plant essential oils and pyrethroids in comparison with pyrethroids alone were calculated and synergistic outcomes characterized. Numerous plant essential oils significantly synergized a variety of pyrethroids; type I pyrethroids were synergized to a greater degree than type II pyrethroids. Eight plant essential oils significantly enhanced 24‐h mortality rates provided by permethrin and six plant essential oils enhanced 24‐h mortality rates obtained with natural pyrethrins. By contrast, only three plant essential plants significantly enhanced the toxicity of deltamethrin and β‐cyfluthrin. Of the plant essential oils that enhanced the toxicity of these pyrethroids, some produced varying levels of synergism and antagonism. Geranium, patchouli and Texas cedarwood oils produced the highest levels of synergism, displaying co‐toxicity factors of > 100 in some combinations. To assess the levels of enhancement and synergism of other classes of insecticide, malathion was also applied in combination with the plant oils. Significant antagonism was provided by a majority of the plant essential oils applied in combination with this insecticide, which suggests that plant essential oils may act to inhibit the oxidative activation processes within exposed adult mosquitoes.

Retrospective nationwide occurrence of fipronil and its degradates in U.S. wastewater and sewage sludge from 2001 - 2016

The insecticide fipronil is under regulatory scrutiny worldwide for its toxicity to pollinators and aquatic invertebrates. We conducted the first U.S. nationwide, longitudinal study of sewage sludges for fiproles, i.e., the sum of fipronil and its major degradates (fipronil sulfone, sulfide, amide, and desulfinyl). Archived sludges (n = 109) collected in three campaigns over 15 years were analyzed by isotope dilution liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry, revealing ubiquitous fiprole occurrence (0.2–385.3 μg/kg) since 2001 and a significant increase (2.4 ± 0.3 fold; p < 0.005) both from 2001 to 2006/7 and from 2001 to 2015/6, but not a significant increase from 2006/7 to 2015/6 (p = 0.275). A geospatial analysis showed fiprole levels in municipal sludges to be uncoupled from agricultural use of fipronil on cropland surrounding sampled municipalities, thus pointing to non-agricultural uses (i.e., spot-on treatment and urban pest control) as a major source of fiprole loading to wastewater. Whereas anaerobic digestion was correlated with increases in fipronil sulfide at the expense of parental fipronil (p < 0.001), total fiprole levels in sewage sludges were similar regardless of the solids treatment approach applied (p = 0.519). Treatment plant effluent available from 12 facilities in 2015/6 contained fiproles at 0.3–112.9 ng/L, exceeding the United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) aquatic invertebrate life benchmark for chronic fipronil exposure (11 ng/L) in 67% of cases. Whereas the USEPA identified fipronil in sludge only recently (2015), retrospective analyses and modeling conducted here show contaminant ubiquity and nationwide increases of fiprole mass (compared to 2001 levels) in U.S. municipal sludge (1140 ± 230 kg in 2015/6), and treated effluent nationwide (1970 ± 390 kg in 2015/6) over the past 15 years.

Essential oils from Varronia curassavica (Cordiaceae) accessions and their compounds (E)-caryophyllene and α-humulene as an alternative to control Dorymyrmex thoracius (Formicidae: Dolichoderinae).

The process of urbanization of natural environments has dramatically increased the incidence of pest insects. To control these organisms in urban environments, the last decades have been marked by an increase in the use of synthetic insecticides. However, the intensive and indiscriminate use of synthetic insecticides hasprovoked a series of environmental problems and human health. In this way, the concern and the searching for environmentally safer alternatives for the control of urban pests is increasing. In the present study we evaluated the lethal and sublethal effects of essential oils (EOs) of six accessions of Varronia curassavica (Jacq.) (Cordiaceae) and their constituents (E)-caryophyllene and α-humulene on the ant Dorymyrmex thoracicus Gallardo, 1916 (Formicidae: Dolichoderinae), a species commonly found in urban environments and which can cause damage to human health. Bioassays of fumigation toxicity and locomotor activity in partially treated arenas were performed. The lethal concentrations to kill 50% of the D. thoracicus population ranged from 0.69 to 2.48μL/L for EOs and from 3.75 to 1.49μL/L for the (E)-caryophyllene and α-humulene compounds. The survival of the ants exposed to LC95 of the treatments was reduced over time, ranging from 4.2 to 35.6h to kill 50% of the D. thoracicus population. In general, EOs of V. curassavica caused repellency and affected the locomotor activity of the ants. Our results indicate that EOs of V. curassavica are a promising source for the control of the urban ant D. thoracicus.

OCCUPATIONAL EXPOSURE TO PESTICIDES AND KNOWLEDGE ABOUT RELATED POLICIES IN URBAN PEST CONTROL OPERATORS FROM SOUTHEAST MEXICO

Pesticides, widely used in tropical areas for controlling disease vectors, require urban pest control operator (fumigator) services. Pesticide-use and handling policies and regulations mostly relate with agricultural use according to their application in urban pest control. Our objectives included investigating use pattern, pesticide management practices, and knowledge on related policies in urban pest control of southeastern Mexico and comparing Butyrylcholinesterase (BuChE) activity in these compared with a group of individuals not occupationally exposed to pesticides. We conducted cross-sectional study where all participants were male. The exposed group was integrated by 27 urban pest control operator, the non-exposed group, 26 non-sprayer subjects. A structured questionnaire was applied to participants and BuChE activity in serum was determined. Urban pest control operator had been working with pesticides for 1–17 years, mostly during summer; 67 % did not use personal protection equipment. Eighteen active ingredients were employed as pesticides; chemical groups included pyrethroids (PYR), organophosphates (OP), coumarins, phenylpyrazoles, carbamates (CAR), chloronicotinyls, and amides. Policy knowledge and application were reported for only 30 % of fumigator. BuChE activities (U/L) were similar between groups: 9,837.95 ± 1,844.46 U/L in urban pest control vs. 10,414.81 ± 1,558.42 U/L for the non-sprayer group. We suggest inclusion of additional biological markers in the evaluation of occupational exposure to pesticides, because currently, only OP and CAR are considered, while fumigators are exposed to many other pesticides. Urban pest control lacked knowledge about pesticide management and policy application requiring, hence the need for educational courses for workers and a regulations update

Effects of chlorpyrifos and trichloropyridinol on HEK 293 human embryonic kidney cells

Chlorpyrifos (CPF) [O, O-diethyl -O-3, 5, 6-trichloro-2-pyridyl phosphorothioate] is an organophosphate insecticide widely used for agricultural and urban pest control. Trichloropyridinol (TCP; 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol), the primary metabolite of CPF, is often used as a generic biomarker of exposure for CPF and related compounds. Human embryonic kidney 293 (HEK 293) cells were exposed to CPF and TCP with varying concentrations and exposure periods. Cell cultures enable the cost-effective study of specific biomarkers to help determine toxicity pathways to predict the effects of chemical exposures without relying on whole animals. Both CPF and TCP were found to induce cytotoxic effects with CPF being more toxic than TCP with EC50 values of 68.82 μg/mL and 146.87 μg·ml−1 respectively. Cell flow cytometric analyses revealed that exposure to either CPF or TCP leads to an initial burst of apoptotic induction followed by a slow recruitment of cells leading towards further apoptosis. CPF produced a strong induction of IL6, while TCP exposure resulted in a strong induction of IL1α. Importantly, the concentrations of CPF and TCP required for these cytokine inductions were higher than those required to induce apoptosis. These data suggest CPF and TCP are cytotoxic to HEK 293 cells but that the mechanism may not be related to an inflammatory response. CPF and TCP also varied in their effects on the HEK 293 proteome with 5 unique proteins detected after exposure to CPF and 31 unique proteins after TCP exposure.