Types Of Urban Green Spaces Research Articles

SERVICE AREAS OF LOCAL URBAN GREEN SPACES: AN EXPLORATIVE APPROACH IN ARROIOS, LISBON

The identification of service areas of urban green spaces and areas with lack of these is increasingly necessary within city planning and management, as it translates into important indicators for the assessment of quality of life. In this setting, it is important to evaluate the attractiveness and accessibility dynamics through a set of attributes, taking into account the local reality of the territory under study. This work presents an operational methodology associated with these dynamics in local urban green spaces, assisting in the planning and management of this type of facilities. The methodology is supported firstly on questionnaire surveys and then on network analysis, processing spatial data in a Geographic Information Systems (GIS) environment. In the case study, two local green spaces in Lisbon were selected, on a local perspective explorative approach. Through field data, it was possible to identify service areas for both spaces, and compare the results with references in the literature. It was also possible to recognise areas with lack of these spaces. The difficulty to evaluate the dynamics of real individuals in their choices of urban green spaces and the respective route is a major challenge to the application of the methodology. In this sense it becomes imperative to develop different instruments and adapt them to other types of urban green spaces.

Variation in Vegetation Structure and Composition across Urban Green Space Types

The ecological sustainability and function of urban landscapes is strongly influenced by the composition and structure of the local plant community. Taxonomic composition generally refers to the identity of the species comprising the community, while we define structure as the presence of multiple canopy layers, as well as stems of varying diameter and age. These aspects of urban vegetation significantly influence the ecology of cities, yet they are generally poorly quantified across the range of natural and constructed plant communities present in urban landscapes. We quantified vegetation composition and structure to i) simultaneously assess their variation across four green spaces types (golf courses, public parks, residential neighbourhoods and patches of remnant vegetation) in Melbourne, Australia, and ii) investigate the relationship between vegetation composition and structure within these green spaces. The four green space types supported distinctly different plant communities. Vegetation composition in the residential neighborhoods differed significantly from the others (p<0.05), largely due to the increased richness of shrubs and cultivated plants, and the reduced presence of large trees. Residential neighborhoods had the highest plant species richness, although a large proportion of these species occurred infrequently. The structural complexity of understorey vegetation (calculated as % volume occupied) below 0.5 m was highest in remnant patches followed by golf courses, public parks and residential neighborhoods. The structural complexity of understorey vegetation in remnant vegetation patches was very similar to that of golf courses even though some of the latter were dominated by exotic plant species. Variation in the composition and structure of urban vegetation might have great implications for the retention of faunal diversity within cities because different taxa have specific habitat requirements. Hence, further understanding of variations in the composition and structure of both natural and constructed plant communities in cities will greatly improve our ability to create urban landscapes that enhance both plant and animal biodiversity.

Surface Soil Carbon Storage in Urban Green Spaces in Three Major South Korean Cities

Quantifying and managing carbon (C) storage in urban green space (UGS) soils is associated with the ecosystem services necessary for human well-being and the national C inventory report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Here, the soil C stocks at 30-cm depths in different types of UGS’s (roadside, park, school forest, and riverside) were studied in three major South Korean cities that have experienced recent, rapid development. The total C of 666 soil samples was analyzed, and these results were combined with the available UGS inventory data. Overall, the mean soil bulk density, C concentration, and C density at 30-cm depths were 1.22 g·cm−3, 7.31 g·C·kg−1, and 2.13 kg·C·m−2, respectively. The UGS soil C stock (Gg·C) at 30-cm depths was 105.6 for Seoul, 43.6 for Daegu, and 26.4 for Daejeon. The lower C storage of Korean UGS soils than those of other countries is due to the low soil C concentration and the smaller land area under UGS. Strategic management practices that augment the organic matter supply in soil are expected to enhance C storage in South Korean UGS soils.

Urban greening and city sustainability in Ibadan metropolis, Nigeria

The pace of urbanisation, especially with cities in the developing world, has negatively influenced green areas and, as a consequence, threatened the several benefits provided by vegetation cover. Green areas provide shade, evaporative cooling, rainwater interception, and storage and infiltration functions, with impervious built surfaces. Consequently, the ecosystem services provided by urban green spaces are often overlooked and undervalued. The study uses primary data, which were obtained, through a random and systematic sampling of Three Hundred and Forty Four respondents. Variables used in the analysis include socio-economic characteristics of the respondents, the types of urban green space, benefits of urban green space to the respondents as well as the management strategies involved. Data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. ANOVA result shows that there is significant variation in the types of urban greening with F- value of 4.920, 3.673, 4.822; and p- value of 0.001, 0.006 and 0.001 for road greening, residential greening and institutional greening respectively. Besides, the study reveals that most of the areas in the metropolis are more of concrete than open space with 41.8% covered up with 75% concrete, 18.4% with 50% coverage and 16.1% with100% coverage while14.3% was covered with 25% coverage and only 9.4% is less than 25% concrete coverage. The study therefore recommends the use of land development plan and the use of planning approval strategies among others, to ensure adequate room for urban green space in the metropolis. Key W ords: Urban Greening, City, Sustainability, Urban renewal and Metropolis

Hedonic pricing and different urban green space types and sizes: Insights into the discussion on valuing ecosystem services

In order to differentiate the potential key benefits associated with different urban green spaces, we divided green spaces into nine categories, depending on their type and size. Additionally, we used the percentage of green space in a 500m radius to represent the general ambient condition. Our sample consists of 9346 apartment sales' transactions that took place in Lodz, Poland in 2011–2013. The stepwise regression reduced the number of variables from the initial 48 to 24 in the standard model, and to 26 in the fixed effects model (considering the effects of different districts). The impacts of various green space categories were consistent in both models: the largest forest and large parks were the most important and, together with small forests and the percentage of green space in a 500m radius, positively influenced apartment prices. Cemeteries had a negative impact on apartment prices. Our results show that people do value nature, but unfortunately we cannot determine for which specific reasons. Hedonic pricing seems to be too general for that purpose, in that it only depicts the impacts of the best-known green spaces and the general ambient condition. In this way, our findings contribute to the broader discussion on applying hedonic pricing to the valuation of ecosystem services.

The Relationship between Natural Park Usage and Happiness Does Not Hold in a Tropical City-State.

Previous studies have shown that contact with urban green spaces can produce positive effects on people's stress, health and well-being levels. However, much of this research has been conducted in the temperate regions of Europe or North America. Additionally, most studies have only compared the effects of urban and natural areas on health and well-being, but not made a finer distinction between different types of urban green spaces. We tested the relationship between well-being and the access or use of different types of green spaces among young adults in Singapore, a tropical city-state. The results showed that extraversion and emotional stability increased subjective well-being, positive affect and life satisfaction and decreased stress and negative affect. In addition, we found that level of physical activity increased positive affect and health problems increased negative affect. Neither access to green spaces nor the use of green spaces in Singapore significantly affected the well-being metrics considered, contradicting findings in the temperate regions of the world. We hypothesize that the differences in temperature and humidity and the higher greenery and biodiversity levels outside parks in Singapore could explain this phenomenon. Our results thus question the universality of the relationship between well-being and park usage and highlight the need for more research into the multifaceted effects of green spaces on well-being in the tropics.

Are Perceived Sensory Dimensions a Reliable Tool for Urban Green Space Assessment and Planning?

Environmental psychologists have developed varying methods for landscape assessment according to how it is perceived and experienced. In the Nordic countries, eight perceived sensory dimensions are increasingly being used as a methodological framework for expert assessments. These are serene, nature, rich in species, space, prospect, refuge, social and culture. Using an onsite questionnaire distributed to green space visitors in Helsingborg, Sweden, this study is the first to examine the representation of the eight sensory dimensions in different types of urban green spaces as experienced by lay people and their relationships with green space attributes. The results showed that (1) prospect then serene and space were the most common, and culture and social the least; (2) the experience of the sensory dimensions varied across the six study sites and was related to their diversity of biotopes and overall size; and (3) respondent experience of the sensory dimensions was consistent across gender, age and frequency and type of recreational use. These results grant legitimacy to the method in assessment and mapping of recreational experience of urban green space.

Factors affecting the use of urban green spaces for physical activities: Views of young urban residents in Beijing

Urban green spaces hold great potential for promoting an active life style that allows urban residents to achieve important health benefits. The type of urban green space that is most effective to reach these goals is still unclear. In this study we used an online survey to investigate the ways in which young, urban residents in Beijing, China use urban green spaces for physical activities. We analyzed the factors that affect the residents’ satisfaction levels when participating in physical activities in urban green spaces by using ordinal logistic regression. Responses from the 1062 survey participants indicated that low-intensity activities (e.g., walking, sightseeing) were the most common activities. The living context, quality of vegetation, and accessibility of urban green spaces had a significant effect on residents’ satisfaction levels. For a compact city like Beijing, we recommended plans that focus on increasing the link among existing urban green spaces and improve the maintenance of residential green spaces in order to increase the use of urban green spaces for physical activities.

A comparison of arthropod abundance and arthropod mediated predation services in urban green spaces

Abstract The need to conserve biodiversity and ecosystem services in urban landscapes is widely recognised, yet specific planning and design strategies that promote conservation in urban areas are limited. Little is known about the ability of different types of urban green spaces to support biodiversity and provide ecosystem services. In this study, we compared the abundance of beneficial arthropods (predators and bees) and measured predation services in two different types of green space, areas of turf and prairies. Beneficial arthropods and predation services were measured three times during the 2011 field season in six Chicago (IL, USA) parks that contained both turf and prairie. Using a repeated measures analysis, we found bee abundance was significantly higher in the prairie compared to turf by August, and predator abundance was higher in the prairie throughout the summer. While predation services were not significantly different between the turf and prairie in June, predation steadily increased in the prairie over the course of the summer with significantly higher rates of predation by August. Of the predators measured, spiders were positively correlated with prairie habitat and negatively correlated with the survival of pest insects. We found turf and prairie differentially supported beneficial arthropod abundance and ecosystem services, suggesting the type of green space incorporated into urban areas may be an integral component to expanding the conservation potential of urban landscapes.

Species richness in urban parks and its drivers: A review of empirical evidence

There is growing recognition of urban areas as hosts for innovative ways to conserve and promote biodiversity. Parks, as one specific type of urban green space, constitute particularly important biodiversity hotspots in the cityscape. We reviewed empirical findings on the species richness in urban parks across all species groups that have been studied. The aim was to assess and discuss the overall species richness of urban parks, its community attributes and drivers. Search and subsequent selection process resulted in 62 papers from 25 different countries. For all examined species groups, the findings consistently show that parks are among the most species rich types of urban green spaces, but also that exotics constitute large shares, especially of plant species. Key ecological theories like the gradient approach and the island habitat ecological theory, and fundamental ecological relationships such as the species-area relationship are valid despite the manipulated ‘nature’ of parks and the surrounding urban matrix. Most studies surveyed large number of parks and applied ‘multi-scale’ approaches in tests of confounding variables, providing methodological strength. While matrix effects are consistently found to affect species richness negatively, the diversity of habitats and microhabitat heterogeneity contained in urban parks appears as the most decisive factor for the overall species richness. However, a constraint of research to date is the limitation of individual studies to one or a few species groups, rarely bridging between flora and fauna. Adopting ‘multi-species group’ approaches in future research is needed to further advance the understanding of the overall biodiversity of urban parks, and its drivers.

Urban Ecosystem services on the local level: Urban green spaces as providers

AbstractBreuste J., Schnellinger J., Qureshi S., Faggi A.: Urban ecosystem services on the local level: Urban green spaces as providers. Ekologia (Bratislava), Vol. 32, No. 3, p. 209-304, 2013. Ecosystem services are provided at different spatial and service/functional scales. The local level is the basic unit for ecosystem services, especially when it comes to the human dimension of urban landscapes. These services are provided by green elements (patches) or basic complex ecosystems (green areas) which differ from their neighbourhoods through their structures and functions. This study reviews the generally available knowledge on urban green functions and services at the site level and explains them by using own studies in five different cities in three different continents related to distinct ecosystem services. This allows the development of a methodology to evaluate and compare ecosystem services at the site level. The methodology is based at two levels, patch and green space, and includes the relationship with the surrounding green and built-up space. Different urban green space types are characterized by their internal structures of vegetation, size, shape and location in relation to at least a semi-quantitative scaling of their urban ecosystem services. The evaluated urban green spaces are public urban green spaces. The urban ecosystem services assessed include climate regulation, biodiversity, nature experience, recreation and health. The actual urban challenges, such as land use change, adaptation to climate change, demographic change and urban cultural diversity, demand a systematic and very concrete monitoring of urban ecosystem services at the site level.

Investigation on Temperature dropping effect of Urban Green Space in summer in Hangzhou

Comfortableness of outdoor thermal environment has played an important role in people's lives. During the hot summers, the urban green space system has played a significant role in adjusting air temperature and remitting heat island effect. With the aggravating heat island effect and the developments of science and technology, people have continuously deepened their cognition of that urban green space improves urban ecology. From the multidisciplinar angles of ecology and environmental economics, it can be more deeply to realize and evaluate the significance of urban green space to the urban environment, which has become the hot research area and temperature dropping effect of urban green space in summer is one of it. The research investigates quality of ecological service functions of temperature dropping effects of the different types of urban green space in summer in Hangzhou in the classification way, which will provide inspiration and reference for understanding part of ecological results of reducing air temperature by urban green space in summer in Hangzhou and elaborately classifying and evaluating service function values of urban green space.

Perceptions of parks and urban derelict land by landscape planners and residents

As urban green spaces are important for residential satisfaction, human preferences are a key criterion in their design. However, preferences may vary between landscape planners and residents, which may result in differences between residents’ demands and the actual design. With urban derelict land becoming an important part of the urban green infrastructure, information about the perception and acceptance by residents compared to formal urban parks is important for their planning and design. It was thus examined how different types of urban green spaces are perceived by landscape planners and residents. Criteria for the classification of green spaces used by both participant groups were compared, as were the criteria that influenced preference.Participants sorted and rated photographs of parks and urban derelict land in two different tasks. Hierarchical cluster analyses and multidimensional scaling analyses were used to characterize the participants’ perceptual space. By conducting multiple regression analyses the resulting perceptual dimensions were related to preference.The identified perceptual criteria used to distinguish green spaces were degree of canopy closure, artificiality vs. naturalness, prospect, physical accessibility, and beauty. For residents, the degree of canopy closure was the most important criterion for classification; for landscape planners, it was artificiality. Preferences varied between groups: whereas landscape planners preferred rather natural areas with low accessibility and high species richness, the residents showed a greater preference for formal parks.As a practical implication, the study suggests that residents generally accept urban derelict land as recreational areas if a minimum of maintenance and accessibility is provided. When designing green spaces, landscape planners may consider these differences in their preferences compared to residents.

Managing the impact of urbanization on biodiversity in emerging urban fringe settlements: The case of satellite town, Calabar, Nigeria

Biodiversity is an important part of a complex urban ecosystem and provides significant ecosystem services. It benefits urban communities environmentally, esthetically, recreationally and economically. Variations in land use and development have generated green spaces of different distribution and composition. While the development has continued, the infrastructure and urban areas being developed have substantial impact on biodiversity. The paper examined the types of urban green space and the level of sustainability that has been achieved within its setting in terms of biodiversity conservation in the midst of developing infrastructure in Calabar, Cross River State. The aim is to determine the type and spatial context of urban green space in the study area, the number of developmental activities and managing strategies in sustaining biodiversity. To achieve these objectives, observations, data collection and analysis were carried out; ortho-photographs were used to determine the spatial attributes of the green spaces. The result showed that infrastructure projects have a dramatic impact on biodiversity. If the contribution of urban green spaces to future generation is to be justified, then urban environmental asset will always be deemed to be poor substitutes. Land use planning, environmental impact assessment and contracting supervisory role to credible companies or individuals with good asset base are the principal tools for avoiding or minimizing the adverse impacts of infrastructure development on biodiversity. The ability to maintain and make the most beneficial use of biodiversity depends on using and managing biodiversity sustainably in other activities where the production of goods and services for human consumption is the principal objective.

The influence of bird information, attitudes, and demographics on public preferences toward urban green spaces: The case of Montpellier, France

Urban sprawl is a major driving force of land use change. To develop strategies for sustainable urban development, planners need suitable indicators, one of which is the quality and quantity of green spaces in a city. To implement conservation strategies for urban areas, an assessment of how people perceive green spaces is required. The aim of this paper is to analyze: (1) willingness to contribute financially to two types of urban green spaces, (2) how people's attitudinal and socio-economic characteristics affect this willingness, and (3) to what extent this willingness is affected by the information that green spaces are important for avifauna conservation. We found that 72% of the respondents in Montpellier, France preferred natural (versus ornamental) green spaces and wanted them to be increased in the city. To achieve this, 52% of the respondents were willing to pay a percentage of their monthly household income. Giving information about birds to residents increased their preferences (especially for those having a “favourable” attitude for urban fauna) for “natural” green spaces and increased willingness to pay for green spaces among people using green spaces at least monthly. For people less concerned about nature, there was no such effect of providing bird information on preferences for green spaces.

Ecological effects of lawn greens with pure and mixed stands in an urban setting

We studied the ecological benefits of four types of urban green spaces (lawn, a Robinia pseudoacacia stand, a Pinus tabulaeformis stand and a mixed stand of both species) in Yuan Dynasty Wall Relics Park, Beijing. Each of the eight sampling sites was about 0.1 hm2. The experiment was carried out in June, 2006 over a period of eight consecutive days, during which we continuously measured air temperature, relative humidity (RH) and wind speed at the four green spaces in both horizontal and vertical directions. The results were as follows: in the horizontal direction, the all-day average temperature at the pine stand was the lowest and itsRHwas the highest under three different climate conditions. During the daytime high temperature period, the temperature of the lawn was the highest and its RH the lowest. The temperature was lowest for the mixed stand, and the RH was highest for the pine stand. The highest average daily temperature occurred in the locust stand. The temperature and RH of the four green spaces were statistically different at the 0.05 level of significance. In the vertical direction, the average daily temperature of the four green spaces increased with height. The average daily RH of the four green spaces decreased slightly with increased height. During the high temperature period of the day, the average temperature of the lawn and the P. tabulaeformis stand declined with the increased height, but the temperature at the R. pseudoacacia stand and the mixed P. tabulaeformis-R. pseudoacacia stand fluctuated greatly. With regard to the effect of lowering the wind speed, the mixed stand was better than the other green spaces. Based on these results, it can be concluded that the mixed Chinese pine and locust stand was the best choice for the establishment of urban green spaces.

공원녹지의 토지피복비율과 기온간의 요인분석

The present study examined the relation between land cover condition and temperature in various types of urban green spaces. The diagram of temperature distribution showed that high-temperature zones are formed around paved areas, and low temperature zone around planted areas and grassy areas. Even in planted areas where low-temperature zones were formed, temperature was different according to hierarchical structure. That is, temperature was relatively low in areas covered with arbor + sub-arbor. With regard to land cover ratio, the increase of planted areas and grassy areas had an effect on the fall of temperature and the effect was higher in order of planted areas and grassy areas. On the contrary, paved areas and bare areas had an effect on the rise of temperature. According to the results of factor analysis, in case of the highest temperature, planted area and grassy area were put together into a factor lowering temperature, paved area and temperature into a factor raising temperature, and bare area alone into a factor of low significance. In case of the lowest temperature, grassy area and bare area were put together into a factor, and the validity of the factor analysis was proved by the analysis of urban heat islands. An increase in the number of trees by height was effective in lowering temperature, and the effect was high in order to arbor and sub-arbor, and the source of coldness in planted area was tall trees.

Enjoyment and fear in urban woodlands – Does age make a difference?

Urban dwellers experience conflicting thoughts and feelings about urban woodlands; valued for their natural qualities, the relief they provide from the stress of modern urban living and the opportunities they afford for children's play and exploration. At the same time the seclusion inherent in this type of urban greenspace seems fraught with risk from crime, vandalism and abuse. Whilst many of these characteristics are well-researched, less is known about the differing perceptions of particular social groups. This study aimed to explore the ways in which age affects urban dwellers’ aspirations, values and fears concerning the woods, and woodland accessibility, focusing on the views of elderly people (aged over 65). This pilot study was based in Norfolk Heritage Park, an urban park containing a variety of woodland settings located in Sheffield, UK. The questionnaire survey (participants n=97) revealed that although walking is the most popular leisure activity, most respondents did not visit urban parks as often as they would like, regardless of age. Whilst many of the meanings associated with urban woodland (“relaxation”, “peacefulness”, “seasonal change”, “scenery” and “education”) were shared amongst age groups, it seemed that the elderly respondents particularly valued the woods for their links with the past, and opportunities for immersion in the natural world. Some respondents from all age groups had fears about their personal security in the woodland, and the concerns of the elderly were heightened by their perceived frailty, reduced mobility and sense of vulnerability; this age group had a corresponding need for particular measures to alleviate these problems. The study provides preliminary evidence for the idea that adults of different ages have differing perceptions and requirements in relation to urban woodlands. Due to the small sample size and other methodological issues, further research is needed to confirm and develop the findings.

Invertebrate conservation in urban areas: Ants in the Brazilian Cerrado

We evaluated the potential of different types of urban green spaces for conservation of ground-dwelling ants. The study area, which included 12 public squares, two urban parks, and three natural reserves, is within the highly threatened Cerrado biome of central Brazil. We compared ant species richness and composition among the different types of urban green spaces, and evaluated how ant communities are affected by the structural characteristics of these spaces. The results indicate that public squares in commercial areas presented the least conservation value given the predominance of exotic ant species (mostly Pheidole megacephala). Public squares in residential areas ranked second, given the relative scarcity of exotic species and the greater richness of native species in these locations compared to those in more urbanized areas. The greatest conservation value was achieved by urban parks, which supported the greatest number of native species and were apparently free of exotic species. The closer proximity of urban parks to other natural areas and the presence of native vegetation within the boundaries of those parks appear to be key characteristics for the existence and maintenance of a relatively diverse ant fauna.

Ecological diversity of birds in relation to the structure of urban green space

A functional network of green space is important for the maintenance of the ecological dimension of a sustainable urban landscape. We used avian ecological diversity as a proxy for evaluating the functionality of different types of urban green space. The urban landscape of the municipality of Örebro in Sweden was stratified into four strata (City centre, Residential, Greenway and Periphery). Bird species found in these strata were classified into four ecological groups with decreasing degree of specialisation (woodpeckers, hole-nesters, forest birds and urban birds). Overall there was lower bird species richness in the City centre and Residential areas compared to the Greenway and Periphery. Woodpeckers, hole-nesters and forest birds showed an increasing trend in the number of species as well as individuals from the City centre to the Periphery while urban birds showed the opposite trend. The amount and quality of green space as well as natural vegetation increased from the City centre to the Periphery. Species richness of woodpeckers, forest birds and hole-nesters were positively correlated with tree density while urban birds showed an inverse correlation. There was no dead wood in City centre, Residential and Greenway in contrast to the Periphery, which held some dying trees, stumps and old windthrows. Our findings emphasise the importance of urban green space with natural structures to maintain high ecological diversity. Finally, we discuss how conflicts between habitat for biodiversity maintenance and other functions of green space could be handled by zoning.