Urban Disturbances Research Articles

“Agrarian Unrest” in Central Black Earth Region in Autumn 1905

The study draws on documents from the first department of the Ministry of Justice regarding "agrarian unrest" in the Central Black Earth region in autumn 1905, housed in the Russian State Historical Archive. Cases related to agrarian uprisings in the Tambov and Voronezh gubernias are examined, with a focus on studying the involvement of peasants from the "revolutionary generation" in the agrarian movement (individuals born approximately in the 1890s). The significant role of rumors during the revolution is highlighted. The author explores the causes, algorithms, and characteristics of peasant uprisings, analyzing the role of "leaders" in "agrarian unrest," often led by young individuals less inclined to adhere to traditions. The leading role of youth in the revolutionary movement is emphasized, with urban disturbances acting as catalysts for agrarian uprisings. The communal role is evident in preparing and carrying out forest clearances, pogroms, and more. The evolution of the mosaic nature of peasant self-awareness during the "revolutionary generation" period is analyzed. The author concludes that the October 17, 1905 manifesto played a significant role in awakening revolutionary consciousness in the Tambov and Voronezh villages. Shortcomings in investigating cases of "agrarian unrest" are discussed, allowing many rebels to evade punishment, with the average age of accused peasants calculated at 35.6 years.

Ectomycorrhizal fungal communities in natural and urban ecosystems: Quercus humboldtii as a study case in the tropical Andes

Worldwide urban landscapes are expanding because of the growing human population. Urban ecosystems serve as habitats to highly diverse communities. However, studies focusing on the diversity and structure of ectomycorrhizal communities are uncommon in this habitat. In Colombia, Quercus humboldtii Bonpl. is an ectomycorrhizal tree thriving in tropical montane forests hosting a high diversity of ectomycorrhizal fungi. Q. humboldtii is planted as an urban tree in Bogotá (Colombia). We studied how root-associated fungal communities of this tree change between natural and urban areas. Using Illumina sequencing, we amplified the ITS1 region and analyzed the resulting data using both OTUs and Amplicon Sequence Variants (ASVs) bioinformatics pipelines. The results obtained using both pipelines showed no substantial differences between OTUs and ASVs for the community patterns of root-associated fungi, and only differences in species richness were observed. We found no significant differences in the species richness between urban and rural sites based on Fisher’s alpha or species-accumulation curves. However, we found significant differences in the community composition of fungi present in the roots of rural and urban trees with rural communities being dominated by Russula and Lactarius and urban communities by Scleroderma, Hydnangium, and Trechispora, suggesting a high impact of urban disturbances on ectomycorrhizal fungal communities. Our results highlight the importance of urban trees as reservoirs of fungal diversity and the potential impact of urban conditions on favoring fungal species adapted to more disturbed ecosystems.

How to manage urban disturbances: Focused on social-ecological vulnerability to fine dust pollution

Since the pattern of fine dust pollution varies regionally, it is necessary to identify areas vulnerable to fine dust pollution based on local community and environmental infrastructure and then plan green infrastructure for these areas. The purpose of this study is to analyze the suitability area of green infrastructure systems to improve urban resilience with regards to fine dust pollution. Regarding the research methods, first, a search for previous studies is conducted to establish an evaluation index for the resilience to fine dust pollution. Second, data on the environmental and social factors of the case study site (Suwon, Republic of Korea) are collected and mapped based on the resilience evaluation indices established for fine dust pollution. Third, these indices are used to confirm that regional differences caused by landscape fragmentation exist with regards to resilience to fine dust pollution. This study yields two key outcomes. Firstly, the indicators associated with resilience against fine dust pollution are categorized into environmental and social factors. Environmental factors encompass the composition of pollutants (including concentrations of PM2.5, PM10, NO2, O3, CO, and SO2), proximity to roads, and environmental assets such as well-established roadside green spaces, parks, forests, and thriving vegetation. Meanwhile, social factors incorporate considerations of social welfare services and air pollutant emission facilities. These factors contribute to the comprehensive evaluation indices, encompassing exposure, sensitivity, and adaptive capacity concerning fine dust pollution. Secondly, the spatial analysis of fine dust pollution within the case study area reveals that regions exhibiting robust social-ecological system adaptive capacities tend to demonstrate heightened resilience against fine dust pollution. Conversely, areas characterized by elevated exposure and sensitivity to this issue exhibit reduced resilience. Moreover, the investigation into landscape fragmentation highlights a strong correlation between resilience against fine dust pollution and the fragmentation of green spaces. This study deviates from previous research endeavors through its innovative approach of strategically planning green infrastructure in vulnerable zones, aligning with local characteristics. It further introduces distinct resilience evaluation indicators tailored to fine dust pollution and integrates considerations of the spatial distribution of social-ecological systems, thereby contributing to a nuanced understanding of this complex issue.

Is body condition of Mexican rubyspot (Odonata:Zygoptera) associated with urbanization?

Urbanized areas can impose selective pressures on insects which can be identified at the individual level based on animal physiological condition. Physiological condition can be measured from variables such as body size, body mass or energetic budget of individuals. We examined whether body mass, wing spot size and energy reserves (proteins, lipids and carbohydrates) were reduced as urbanization increases, using adults of two damselflies, Hetaerina americana and H. vulnerata, in Central Mexico. We used a Habitat Integrity Index to assess the degree of urbanization in our sampled sites, considering biophysical attributes and the impact of anthropogenic activities. We did not find relation of above individual variables with urbanization degree. These results support possible resilience of rubyspot damselflies in the face of radical changes such as urbanization. Our finding echoes other results in damselflies research.Implications for insect conservationOur results highlight the resilience of these damselflies species in the face of urban disturbances. Thus design cities considering not only requirements of humans is essential to promote the presence and conservation of these and other species of insects in cities.Graphical abstract

Assessment of soil development during rapid urbanization using the carbon and nitrogen stable isotope composition.

The proposed paper is devoted to the analysis of the urbanization effects on soil cover using physico-chemical parameters and stable isotopic signatures on the example of Tyumen. The study methods included analysis of C and N elemental and isotope (δ13C and δ15N) composition, analysis of soil physico-chemical properties and major oxides content. The results of the survey have shown that soil properties within the city limits vary significantly depending on both anthropogenic activities and geomorphological context. The urban soils of Tyumen differ from very strongly acidic with pH values down to 4.8 to strongly alkaline with pH values reaching 8.9, and from sandy loams to silty loams by texture. The study results have shown that δ13C values varied from -33.86 to -25.14‰ and δ15N values varied in range, especially, from -1.66 to 13.38‰. The range of these signatures was smaller than those reported for urbanized areas in Europe and USA. The δ13C values in our case were more related to the geological and landscape parameters of the study area, rather than with urban disturbances and development of urban ecosystems. At the same time, the δ15N values probably indicate zones with increased atmospheric N deposition in the case of Tyumen. The application δ13C and δ15N is a promising tool for analysis of urban soil disturbances and functions, though the regional context should be taken into account.

TERRESTRIAL AMPHIBIANS INHABITING AN URBAN XERIC ECOSYSTEM: AN ASSESSMENT OF FROGS AND SALAMANDERS IN PROTECTED AREAS FROM MEXICO CITY

Amphibians are particularly sensitive to disturbances caused by urbanization. Urban disturbances impact amphibians at different ecological scales that include a decrease in biodiversity, increment of stress, and changes in vocal behavior. However, little is known about urban effects on terrestrial amphibians. In this study, we quantified abundance (by encounter rates) and species richness of amphibians, and the characteristics of their habitats in Pedregal del Xitle, a xerophytic ecosystem in Mexico City. In addition, we evaluated the vocal activity of Pedregal frogs under different noise exposures within the three protected areas. During 2015 and 2016 with the support of volunteers, several stratified direct night searches were conducted in three urban protected areas. Additionally, using a non-supervised classification of satellite images, we analyzed the coverage of the different vegetation types, and calculated the evenness of amphibians. With an effort of 238 person-hours, we located 73 individuals of amphibians, including three plethodontid salamanders (Aquiloeurycea cephalica, Chiropterotriton orculus and Pseudoeurycea leprosa), and the Pedregal frog, Eleutherodactylus grandis. Altogether, the captures of C. orculus and E. grandis represented 90% of the amphibians found. We found that 75% of the amphibians occupied the rocky ground microhabitat. The call rate of E. grandis was consistently lower at sites with the highest noise exposure. Among the three urban protected areas, Ecoguardas stands out as the one with the greatest abundance and diversity of amphibians and the largest proportion of forested area. Our study revealed the ecological value of the Pedregal ecosystem for terrestrial amphibians, since the most threatened species (the frog E. grandis and the salamander C. orculus) are those with the greatest presence in the urban protected areas studied.

Dynamic monitoring of urban built-up object expansion trajectories in Karachi, Pakistan with time series images and the LandTrendr algorithm

In the complex process of urbanization, retrieving its dynamic expansion trajectories with an efficient method is challenging, especially for urban regions that are not clearly distinguished from the surroundings in arid regions. In this study, we propose a framework for extracting spatiotemporal change information on urban disturbances. First, the urban built-up object areas in 2000 and 2020 were obtained using object-oriented segmentation method. Second, we applied LandTrendr (LT) algorithm and multiple bands/indices to extract annual spatiotemporal information. This process was implemented effectively with the support of the cloud computing platform of Earth Observation big data. The overall accuracy of time information extraction, the kappa coefficient, and average detection error were 83.76%, 0.79, and 0.57 a, respectively. These results show that Karachi expanded continuously during 2000–2020, with an average annual growth rate of 4.7%. However, this expansion was not spatiotemporally balanced. The coastal area developed quickly within a shorter duration, whereas the main newly added urban regions locate in the northern and eastern inland areas. This study demonstrated an effective framework for extract the dynamic spatiotemporal change information of urban built-up objects and substantially eliminate the salt-and-pepper effect based on pixel detection. Methods used in our study are of general promotion significance in the monitoring of other disturbances caused by natural or human activities.

Construction related urban disturbances: Identification and linking with an IoT-model

While being a significant part of the urban development, construction projects disturb different stakeholders in various ways. There are three problems associated with construction disturbances: (i) most of these disturbances are not recognised by the people causing them, (ii) they are not monitored and (iii) if they are to be monitored, data is spread among stakeholders. This paper defines what a disturbance is, presents a list of disturbances, linking disturbances to stakeholders and, categorising them based on their distance from construction sites (responding to (i)). Next, a IoT domain model is developed, demonstrating how IoT in construction needs to be combined with the sensors of smart cities to capture the primitives of these disturbances (responding to (iii)). This is a first step towards enabling large-scale data-gathering of construction transport disturbances (responding to (ii)), which is a necessity to predict them and allow better construction transport planning to decrease disturbances.

Second-order and local characteristics of network intensity functions

The last decade has witnessed an increase of interest in the spatial analysis of structured point patterns over networks whose analysis is challenging because of geometrical complexities and unique methodological problems. In this context, it is essential to incorporate the network specificity into the analysis as the locations of events are restricted to areas covered by line segments. Relying on concepts originating from graph theory, we extend the notions of first-order network intensity functions to second-order and local network intensity functions. We consider two types of local indicators of network association functions which can be understood as adaptations of the primary ideas of local analysis on the plane. We develop the nodewise and cross-hierarchical type of local functions. A real data set on urban disturbances is also presented.

Crianças-soldado, uma realidade atual em contexto internacional: a utilização de crianças e adolescentes em conflitos armados

O presente artigo tem o objetivo de apresentar um panorama sobre o recrutamento de crianças-soldado para os conflitos armados vividos em alguns países do continente africano, em especial em Angola, e uma análise sobre a utilização de crianças e adolescentes das comunidades cariocas no tráfico de drogas e nos distúrbios urbanos. Duas realidades distintas, porém ambas constitutivas de violações aos Direitos Humanos. Assim, para a consecução deste objetivo, pretende-se discutir os desdobramentos jurídicos de algumas normas específicas que visam a proteger as crianças e os adolescentes diante da violenta realidade em que se encontram milhares deles.

From Main Street to Mall: The Rise and Fall of the American Department Store by Vicki Howard

Reviewed by: From Main Street to Mall: The Rise and Fall of the American Department Store by Vicki Howard Traci Parker (bio) From Main Street to Mall: The Rise and Fall of the American Department Store. By Vicki Howard. (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 2015. Pp. 304. $34.95 cloth) From the late nineteenth through the mid-twentieth century, department stores were portals to luxury, innovators of modern retailing, and major players in the development of center cities. Today, department stores are considered passé and fêted as “historic or nostalgic artifacts” that epitomize the good old days of urban life and leisure (p. 5). Vicki Howard examines this transformation in From Main Street to Mall: The Rise and Fall of the American Department Store. She rejects the conventional wisdom offered by marketing and retail scholars—the idea that the rise and fall of department stores was simply “part of a life cycle” of retailing (p. 5). Instead, she argues that their course was shaped by structural shifts in the U.S. economy, the rise and proliferation of chain and discount stores, suburbanization, the decline of American cities, and the actions (as well as inactions) of the state. She also insists that the department store industry itself made decisions that facilitated the birth and success of discounters, as well as its own demise. In doing all of this, Howard makes significant contributions to our historical understanding of American department stores—those in and outside major cities—and their relationship to the state and other retailers in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. [End Page 304] Howard’s book is an impressive achievement. Well written and extensively researched, it deftly builds on the works of Susan Porter Benson, Lizabeth Cohen, Alison Isenberg, William R. Leach, Richard Longstreth, and Daniel Opler, among others, while engaging department store records, trade publications, and newspapers. What distinguishes From Main Street to Mall from other books on department stores, however, is its meticulous attention to the industry’s relationship with the government through the decades. Department stores welcomed the support and protection of state and federal governments when they believed their interests and goals would be safeguarded. However, when government agencies sought to implement fair-trade legislation, protect price maintenance, or pursue any policy retailers believed would undermine their power, department stores strategically campaigned against government oversight. In such instances, they even went as far as to ally themselves with their competitors—chain and discount stores—to push for a laissez-faire program. In the end, Howard argues, it was “loose federal oversight of the financial sector and the explosion of leveraged buyouts” that “allowed a wave of ‘retail-merger mania’ . . . and left far fewer firms standing” in the final decades of the twentieth century (p. 199). From Main Street to Mall is arguably at its best when exploring postwar department stores and their efforts to expand and modernize in the face of the discount revolution and federal policies that supported the decentralization of cities. However, its consideration of the industry during the civil rights movement may leave some readers wanting more. Howard rightly notes that many merchants, specifically those in the South, “opposed federally mandated desegregation of public accommodations” (p. 160). She also rightly credits grassroots activism and government intervention for integrating these spaces on behalf of African American workers and consumers. But Howard surprisingly makes no mention of the urban disturbances of the 1960s or how department stores often thwarted integration by shifting into suburban retailing (where they could continue to cater to and secure the work of their desired clientele and personnel—the [End Page 305] white middle class). All of this significantly affected the industry and American cities. Nevertheless, From Main Street to Mall remains an insightful and valuable text on the history of department stores. It is essential reading for anyone interested in American consumer capitalism, retailing, and politics. Traci Parker TRACI PARKER is an assistant professor in the W. E. B. Du Bois Department of Afro-American Studies at the University of Massachusetts– Amherst. She is currently writing a book on African American workers and consumers in twentieth-century department stores. Copyright © 2017 Kentucky Historical Society

Restoration treatments in urban park forests drive long-term changes in vegetation trajectories.

Municipalities are turning to ecological restoration of urban forests as a measure to improve air quality, ameliorate urban heat island effects, improve storm water infiltration, and provide other social and ecological benefits. However, community dynamics following urban forest restoration treatments are poorly documented. This study examines the long-term effects of ecological restoration undertaken in New York City, New York, USA, to restore native forest in urban park natural areas invaded by woody non-native plants that are regional problems. In 2009 and 2010, we sampled vegetation in 30 invaded sites in three large public parks that were restored 1988-1993, and 30 sites in three large parks that were similarly invaded but had not been restored. Data from these matched plots reveal that the restoration treatment achieved its central goals. After 15-20 years, invasive species removal followed by native tree planting resulted in persistent structural and compositional shifts, significantly lower invasive species abundance, a more complex forest structure, and greater native tree recruitment. Together, these findings indicate that successional trajectories of vegetation dynamics have diverged between restored forests and invaded forests that were not restored. In addition, the data suggest that future composition of these urban forest patches will be novel assemblages. Restored and untreated sites shared a suite of shade-intolerant, quickly-growing tree species that colonize disturbed sites, indicating that restoration treatments created sites hospitable for germination and growth of species adapted to high light conditions and disturbed soils. These findings yield an urban perspective on the use of succession theory in ecological restoration. Models of ecological restoration developed in more pristine environments must be modified for use in cities. By anticipating both urban disturbances and ecological succession, management of urban forest patches can be adjusted to better predict and direct long-term outcomes. An urban approach to ecological restoration must use realistic, flexible targets to preserve and enhance urban biodiversity for both short-term benefits and long-term sustainability.

Community cohesion without parallel lives in Bradford

ABSTRACT The concept of community cohesion is the centrepiece of the policy that was formulated by the British government in response to the urban disturbances in northern English towns during 2001. A number of official reports identified lack of community cohesion as the critical factor. The central argument for community cohesion, the self-segregation thesis, was based on evidence from Bradford. The core idea, parallel lives, was first articulated in the Ouseley Report and incorporated into the Cantle Report and subsequent government reports into the 2001 disturbances. The Commission for Integration and Cohesion widened the concept of community cohesion, which encompassed faith and ethnic groups, to include income and generation, suggesting that the concept was more complex than earlier definitions allowed. However, the increasing concern with terrorism has meant that Muslims remain the focus of debates on cohesion, and a conflation of the community cohesion programme with the government's anti-terrorism strategy is evident in the policy literature. Samad's article is based on research carried out in Bradford to unearth and explore the factors that enhance or undermine community cohesion in those areas where there are established Muslim communities and, additionally, those in which Muslim migrants have recently arrived. It scrutinizes the debate on a number of issues: the difficulties in defining and implementing community cohesion policy, and the issues of segregation, social capital, transnationalism and belonging. This data-driven analysis takes the main areas of debate and tests them with evidence from Bradford. The research findings challenge some of the fundamental assumptions that have informed government policy by providing new evidence that throws light on central aspects of the debate. The need to reflect on these assumptions became more relevant after the English riots of 2011, centred in London, and the subsequent necessity to develop an effective strategy that engages with their root causes.

Regional Narratives and Post-racial Fantasies in the English Riots

This article considers the manner in which the urban disturbances across England in 2011 were framed in popular and scholarly understanding. The article suggests that the days of rioting are not, in themselves, the events that merit analysis and scrutiny. Instead, we should consider again how we frame urban unrest within a broader analysis of the renegotiation of public space and national identities. The article goes on to consider the representation of regional characters in coverage of the riots and to present an analysis of fantasies of the post-racial that emerged in relation to events in Birmingham.

Hydrogeomorphic adjustments of stream channels disturbed by urban runoff (Yzeron River basin, France)

This paper presents a field investigation on hydrogeomorphic adjustments of small streams in a 147 km2 periurban catchment, the Yzeron River catchment located in France. The rapid development of periurban areas in the world is now considered as one of the main factor impacting river systems. Urban disturbances are most of the time associated with irreversible alterations of the hydrological regime, the sediment yields, with major ecological impacts and additional socio-economical costs. Nineteen stream reaches have been considered in this study, with drainage areas ranging from 0.2 to 33.9 km2 and total impervious areas ranging from 1% to 52% of the basin surface. A regional analysis was led in order (i) to quantify the hydrogeomorphic adjustments of stream channels in this periurban context, i.e. the ratios between observed values and reference/rural values; and (ii) to identify the main anthropogenic controlling factors of these adjustments. Results show that urban river channels experience a global enlargement, with a mean bankfull discharge ratio of 1.8, bankfull width and depth ratios of 1.3 and a bankfull area ratio of 1.8. This study also outlines the global increase of hydrogeomorphic adjustments with the increase of the fraction of impervious area and the level of disturbance of the flood regime. However, local anthropogenic factors seem to be much more relevant to explain the highest adjustment ratios at several river reaches (enlargement ratio up to 55). The vicinity of a river reach with road sewers and/or the urban areas is identified to be a very important factor that affects significantly the smallest streams (drainage area less than 5 km2). On the contrary, at several reaches no significant deepening or widening was observed although roads/urban sewers and urban areas were identified in their catchment. Several hypotheses are proposed, but additional works with new data (river monitoring) would be needed to propose management and/or restoration guidelines in periurban catchments.

Screening of xylophagous fungi associated with Platanus acerifolia in urban landscapes: Biodiversity and potential biodeterioration

Trees in urban landscapes provide a wide range of benefits to the environment; however, they are exposed to several stress factors that can make them vulnerable to decay by fungi. The presence and identity of wood decay Basidiomycetes affecting Platanus acerifolia, a common tree used in cities, were evaluated in sites with different levels of urban disturbances in order to analyze the relationships between human disturbance level, tree age, fungal pathogens and their degradative potential. We carried out morphological and cultural descriptions of the fungi detected, and studied their decay capacity. Eight species of Basidiomycetes were detected, being Inonotus rickii the most frequently isolated and the most widely distributed in the areas sampled. Bjerkandera adusta, although rarely detected, caused the greatest loss of dry weight. In some cases phylogenetic analyses were performed under both static and dynamic homologies. The age of the trees (estimated from DBH values) sampled seemed to be more important as a predisposing factor for decay than anthropogenic disturbance of sites. The correlation between tree age, presence and identity of fungi, degradative potential and environment conditions is discussed.

Urbanization and riparian forest woody communities: Diversity, composition, and structure within a metropolitan landscape

Understanding how urban land-use structure contributes to the abundance and diversity of riparian woody species can inform management and conservation efforts. Yet, previous studies have focused on broad-scale (e.g., urban to exurban) land-use types and have not examined more local-scale changes in land use (e.g., the variation within “urban”), which could be important in urban areas. In this paper we examine how local-scale characteristics or fine-scale urban heterogeneity affect(s) the diversity, composition, and structure of temperate woody riparian vegetation communities in the highly urbanized area of Cincinnati, Ohio, USA. We use an information-theoretic approach to compare vegetation models and canonical correspondence analyses to compare species responses to urban variables. We found that urban riparian areas can harbor a high diversity of native canopy and shrub species (38 and 41, respectively); however, native and exotic woody plant species responded differently to urbanization. Exotic canopy species increased with the level of urbanization while native canopy and understory species declined. Understory species diversity displayed a greater response to urbanization than did canopy diversity, suggesting temporal lags in canopy response to disturbances associated with present and recent land-use changes. Certain native and exotic woody species represent ecological indicators of different levels of urbanization. Native species characteristic of pre-European settlement conditions were restricted to the wide riparian forests with little urban encroachment. Several native early-successional species appear tolerant to urbanization. Two exotic species, the tree Ailanthus altissima and the shrub Lonicera maackii, were the most abundant and ubiquitous woody species and appear to exploit urban disturbances. These exotic species invasions have the potential to modify forest composition and ecological function of urban riparian systems. In addition, altered hydrology may be a contributing factor as canopy and understory stem density of high-moisture-requiring species decreased with an increase in impervious surface and grass cover and with proximity to roads and railroads. In the face of urbanization, maintaining wide riparian forests and limiting building, road and railroad development within these areas may help reduce the invasion of exotic species and benefit hydrological function in temperate riparian areas.

Race, Space, and Riots in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles (review)

Reviewed by: Race, Space, and Riots in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles James Diego Vigil Janet L. Abu-Lughod , Race, Space, and Riots in Chicago, New York, and Los Angeles. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2007. 360 pp. Building on her earlier book on three cities, New York, Chicago, and Los Angeles: America's Global Cities (U. Minnesota Press, 1999), Professor Abu-Lughod goes one step further in the review here by examining the riots that have occurred in these cities. First a brief word about the author's background. Janet L. Abu-Lughod is professor emerita of sociology at Northwestern University and the Graduate School of the New School for Social Research. She has distinguished herself as a major urbanist for several decades. In this new book, she neatly balances the historical facts of each of these cities with a deeply informed interpretation that clearly advances our knowledge of how both large and small riots unfold. Abu-Lughod starts off by citing the Kerner report (U.S. Riot Commission Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorder) of 1968 which included this famous statement about the widespread riots: "This is our basic conclusion: Our nation is moving toward two societies, one black, one white—separate and unequal" (Kerner Report 1968:1). For the remainder of the book, Professor Abu-Lughod goes on to document how tz`his assessment, now forty years old, is still a nagging source of most of our nation's urban disturbances, thus the key words in the title, "Race" and [End Page 515] "Space." In many ways, it's the same old, same old even in the suggested policies to curb uprisings. In addition to addressing this larger issue, Abu Lughod carefully dissects the historical trajectories of the three cities, outlining two riots for each city, making six in all. She does this by underscoring that these riots were "megariots or (almost) major riots" as opposed to minor uprisings. Race relations figure prominently in most of these cases, and the author takes care to define race as a social construct. She also clarifies where other factors enter the analysis, such as the tensions over living space in certain cities. Hers is a welcome interdisciplinary perspective on the subject of "race riots," adding nuances and wrinkles heretofore missed by other observers. The discussion on the three cities is a type of controlled comparison where a limited number of disturbances are recounted in detail with overarching questions driving the analysis. These questions are: 1) what are the changing conditions of race relations over time; 2) how do we explain variations in riots in three distinct cities; and 3) why do city governments reflect different response strategies? She then goes on to state the case of each city. Chicago is the city the author knows best and the book's two chapters covering the "bloody" riot of 1919 and the "Black Uprising" in 1968 are masterful descriptions and analysis of the root causes there. The early urban history is fascinating, rich with evidence and insight. For example, the 1919 riot was triggered by a swimming incident by the lakeshore where a black youth was killed by a rock thrown by a white man. The descriptions of what occurred after is assessed from various angles to provide a well-rounded view, leaving the reader with plenty of facts and evidence to make up his or her mind. As an urbanist, the author is without parallel when she dissects the U.S. federal effort to address the housing needs of the population. While race and socioeconomic issues are important too, the author stresses the significance of space and how the contentions over neighborhood borders eventually solidified a solution: the separation of the white and black races. This battle over space raged as a low-intensity war from the 1950s to the 1960s and erupted into violence and bloodshed with the assassination of Dr. Martin Luther King on April 4, 1968. While space and race marked events in Chicago, class and race seemed to reflect the black-white antagonisms and hostilities in New York. However, politics and political wrangling set the tone for the first chapter, the Harlem riots of...

Methodological dilemmas: gatekeepers and positionality in Bradford

This paper explores the ever-evolving relationship between gatekeepers and the researcher, and the ways in which it may facilitate, constrain or transform the research process by opening and/or closing the gate. We explore the methodological issue of positionality and discuss the ways in which gatekeepers drew on different axes of the researcher's identities – religion, ethnicity, gender and age – in ambiguous and contradictory ways. In analysing this relationship, we locate the discussion within its historical context, as we contend that contextuality influenced the way gatekeepers positioned the researcher. This paper draws on the field experiences of the first author in four inner-city neighbourhoods in Bradford, West Yorkshire, a northern city with a well-established Pakistani Muslim community that has become synonymous with the Rushdie affair and the 1995 and 2001 urban disturbances.

Parallel Lives? Challenging Discourses of British Muslim Self-Segregation

The urban disturbances in Bradford, Oldham, and Burnley in 2001 served to underline the contested meanings of black and minority ethnic residential segregation in Britain. Official reports into the disturbances highlighted the depth of ethnic divisions in these northern cities, where, it was contended, British Asian and white people are living “a series of parallel lives”. Central to this assertion is the claim that people of South Asian origin, particularly British Muslims, are failing to be active citizens by withdrawing from interactions with wider British society. This paper examines the discourses surrounding charges of British Muslim isolationism and self-segregation, which have been closely linked to the persistence of inner-city ethnic clustering. The arguments draw on in-depth research with people of Pakistani/Kashmiri and Bangladeshi origin in Bradford and connect to debates about Britishness, whiteness. and the Western portrayal of British Muslims as Other. The findings give voice to British Muslims, enabling us to examine critically the processes involved in the racialisation of space and to challenge the view that British Muslims wish to live separately from others and disengage from British society.