Urban Colonization Research Articles

Correction: Urban colonization of invasive species on islands: Mus musculus and Rattus rattus genetics of establishment on Cozumel Island

Correction: Urban colonization of invasive species on islands: Mus musculus and Rattus rattus genetics of establishment on Cozumel Island

Urban colonization of invasive species on islands: Mus musculus and Rattus rattus genetics of establishment on Cozumel Island

Humans and wildlife experience complex interactions in urban ecosystems, favoring the presence of commensal species, among which invasive species are particularly successful. Rodents are the main vertebrate group introduced to oceanic islands, where the invasion process and dispersal patterns strongly influence their evolutionary and genetic patterns. We evaluated the house mouse Mus musculus and the black rat Rattus rattus on Cozumel Island, Mexico. We assessed genetic diversity and structure, connectivity, gene flow, relatedness and bottleneck signals based on microsatellite loci. Our genetic findings suggest that introduction of individuals of different geographic sources to the island promotes high allelic diversity and the effective establishment of migrants. We identified a clear genetic structure and low connectivity for the two species, tightly linked with anthropogenic and urban features. Notably, we found that the genetic structure of the house mouse sampled within the city of San Miguel Cozumel is associated with the historical human population growth pulses accompanying the urbanization of the city. At the fine-scale genetic level, the main urban drivers of connectivity of the house mouse were both the impervious land surfaces, i.e. the urban landscape, and the informal commerce across the city (a proxy of resources availability). Chances of a secondary invasion to natural environments have been relatively low, which is crucial for the endemic taxa of the island. Nonetheless, improving urban planning to regulate future expansions of San Miguel Cozumel is of the outmost importance to prevent these invasive species to disperse further.

An emerging aeroallergen in Europe: Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima [Mill.] Swingle) inventory and pollen concentrations – Taking a metropolitan region in Germany as an example

Urban areas are often hotspots for the dissemination of non-native (invasive) plant species, some of which release (potentially) allergenic pollen. Given the high population density in cities, a considerable number of people can be regularly and potentially intensively exposed to the pollen from these plants. This study delves into the Tree-of-Heaven (Ailanthus altissima, [Mill.] Swingle), native to East Asia, which is known for its high invasiveness in temperate regions worldwide, particularly favoring urban colonization. This study explores the botanical and aerobiological dimensions of this species using the central European metropolitan region of Berlin, Germany, as a case study, and provides a comprehensive global overview of allergological insights.The number of Ailanthus trees decreased markedly from the center to the periphery of Berlin City, following a temperature gradient. The same spatial trend was mirrored by airborne Ailanthus pollen concentrations measured with volumetric spore traps (Hirst-type) at five sites using seven traps. Ailanthus pollen was most abundant around midday and in the afternoon, with concentrations tenfold higher at street level than at roof level. The Ailanthus flowering period in June and July coincided well with the pollen season. To the best of our knowledge this is the first study to investigate Ailanthus altissima pollen production. On average, 5539 pollen grains were found per anther. A literature review on the allergy relevance of Ailanthus altissima pollen indicates the high allergenic potential of pollen from this species.Considering the anticipated expansion of suitable habitats for Ailanthus owing to global warming and the allergological significance of its pollen, it is recommended to include Ailanthus pollen in routine pollen monitoring, particularly in areas colonized by this species. This comprehensive study provides new insights into a pollen taxon whose significance as an emerging aeroallergen should be factored into plant selection and greenspace management in all temperate regions.

Toxoplasma gondii infection in ticks infesting migratory birds: the blackbird (Turdus merula) and the song thrush (Turdus philomelos).

Toxoplasmosis, caused by the protozoan Toxoplasma gondii, is the zoonosis widespread all over the world. Birds constitute an important group of T. gondii intermediate hosts often attacked by definitive hosts, e.g. domestic cats. Due to confirmation of an additional way of T. gondii transmission via tick bite, the aim of our study was to state and evaluate the infection prevalence of ticks feeding on blackbirds (Turdus merula) and song thrushes (Turdus philomelos). The real-time PCR amplification of the B1 gene fragment was used for detection of T. gondii infection in 157 Ixodes ricinus ticks removed from captured birds. The results showed the thrushes as hosts intensively attacked by ticks (prevalence 88.5% and 70% for blackbirds and song thrushes, respectively), and T. gondii infected individuals were detected. Among all ticks infected, 7 (5.8%; n = 120) were collected from blackbirds, and 2 (5.4%; n = 37) from song thrushes. The thrushes small body sizes and their tendency to urban ecosystems colonization, suggest that they relatively often become a pray of domestic cats, and combined with our findings, are potentially involved in maintenance the T. gondii population, especially in anthropogenic habitats, where the presence of toxoplasmosis is likely to constitute a serious danger to public health.

Unveiling the urban colonization of the Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator) across its distribution range using citizen science.

This study aims to investigate the urban colonization of the Asian water monitor (Varanus salvator) across its entire range of distribution, addressing the paucity of research on this species in urban ecosystems. The research spans the geographic range of the Asian water monitor, focusing on urbanized areas where the species accumulates more observations (Bangkok, Colombo, Jakarta, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore). We conducted a systematic review to comprehensively assess the current knowledge of the species' presence in cities. Additionally, citizen science data from repositories like GBIF (Global Biodiversity Information facility ) were utilized to analyze the distribution patterns of V. salvator in urban environments. To elucidate urban distribution and correct collection biases, observations were weighted by sampling effort, using as a proxy all squamate occurrences available from 2010-2023, including V. salvator. Despite the widespread presence of the Asian water monitor in numerous cities within its distribution range, the available studies on the topic appear to be scarce. Existing research primarily consists of descriptive reports on diet and behavior. Our findings indicate that V. salvator predominantly colonizes green patches in urban areas, such as parks and small gardens. Larger cities exhibit higher records, potentially due to both permanent populations and increased citizen science reporting. The Asian water monitor, as the largest lizard with established populations in cities, remains scarcely studied on a broader scale. However, the urban design of each city seems relevant to understand the distribution patterns within each context. Our study highlights the need for further research to explore the ecological and human dimensions associated with the species' presence in urban environments.

Avian urban ecology in Nepal: A call for attention

Urbanization is increasing at an unprecedented rate, leading to changes in land use resulting in the loss of habitat for birds worldwide. Nevertheless, urban areas still support approximately 20% of the world's bird population. In Nepal, urbanization has been rapidly increasing in recent decades, yet little attention has been paid to urban biodiversity exacerbating the impact of urban expansion on threatened birds. In this perspective article, we explore studies on urban birds in Nepal to identify existing research patterns, discuss what has been known, outline gaps and pave immediate future interventions in studies of avian urban ecology in Nepal. There has been a significantly lower number of studies on urban birds in Nepal compared to neighbouring India and China in the last 10 years. Studies of urban birds in Nepal are at a very early stage focused on the diversity and richness in Kathmandu, Pokhara and Butwal with no baseline data for other major cities. Our understanding of bird homogenization or extinction as well as the effects of birds on cities, such as their rapid colonization and potential role as pests, may be limited by this dearth of knowledge about urban birds and biodiversity. Therefore, we have outlined future research opportunities in avian urban ecology in Nepal such as long-term bird surveys, interdisciplinary field of studies, diseases study, management of urban green spaces, avian adaptation to urban environments, colonization and extinction patterns in cities, and conflicts, challenges, and management strategies related to urban avian ecology. With this article, we call the immediate attention of scientists, urban planners, and related stakeholders to use birds as a model system to study urban environments which could be a good start in building a bird-friendly city.

Effect of Climate and Soils on the Diffusion of Towns on the Territory of Poland in the Thirteenth to the Eighteenth Centuries

Urbanization in different regions of the world followed different spatial models. The article presents some characteristic features of urbanization in the area of contemporary Poland, taking into account the driving factors, the climate and soils, as well as the resulting model of spatial evolution of the urban network; that is, contact-based diffusion. The article points out that the spread of towns between the thirteenth and eighteenth centuries—that is, from the beginning of urbanization on the contemporary territory of Poland to the end of the feudal period—strongly depended on such factors as air temperature and general natural conditions for the development of agriculture. The research was based on an analysis of more than 1,000 urban foundations, and information on the specific distribution of selected climate phenomena. The article also draws attention to historic climate changes as a factor stimulating the dynamics of urbanization in the analyzed territory. This article provides new information on the specific character of urbanization in the area of today’s Poland, and refers to the problem of environmentally determined diffusion of towns in a considerable area of Central Europe. It also fits into a broader discourse on the role of climatic factors in shaping urban colonization in areas characterized by different climates.

Social Learning of Innovations in Dynamic Predator-Prey Systems.

AbstractWe investigate the social transmission of innovations between predators. We focus on two classic predator-prey models. We assume that innovations increase predator attack rates or conversion efficiencies or that innovations reduce predator mortality or handling time. We find that a common outcome is the destabilization of the system. Destabilizing effects include increasing oscillations or limit cycles. Particularly, in more realistic systems (where prey are self-limiting and predators have a type II functional response), destabilization occurs because of overexploitation of the prey. Whenever instability increases the risk of extinction, innovations that benefit individual predators may not have positive long-term effects on predator populations. Additionally, instability could maintain behavioral variability among predators. Interestingly, when predator populations are low despite coexisting with prey populations near their carrying capacity, innovations that could help predators better exploit their prey are least likely to spread. Precisely how unlikely this is depends on whether naive individuals need to observe an informed individual interact with prey to learn the innovation. Our findings help illuminate how innovations could affect biological invasions, urban colonization, and the maintenance of behavioral polymorphisms.

City comfort: weaker metabolic response to changes in ambient temperature in urban red squirrels

The ecophysiological responses of species to urbanisation reveal important information regarding the processes of successful urban colonization and biodiversity patterns in urban landscapes. Investigating these responses will also help uncover whether synurban species are indeed urban ‘winners’. Yet we still lack basic knowledge about the physiological costs and overall energy budgets of most species living in urban habitats, especially for mammals. Within this context, we compared the energetic demands of Eurasian red squirrels (Sciurusvulgaris) from the core of an urban environment with those from a nearby forest. We measured oxygen consumption as a proxy for resting metabolic rate (RMR) of 20 wild individuals (13 urban, 7 forest), at naturally varying ambient temperature (Ta) in an outdoor-enclosure experiment. We found that the variation in RMR was best explained by the interaction between Ta and habitat, with a significant difference between populations. Urban squirrels showed a shallower response of metabolic rate to decreasing Ta than woodland squirrels. We suggest that this is likely a consequence of urban heat island effects, as well as widespread supplemental food abundance. Our results indicate energy savings for urban squirrels at cooler temperatures, yet with possible increased costs at higher temperatures compared to their woodland conspecifics. Thus, the changed patterns of metabolic regulation in urban individuals might not necessarily represent an overall advantage for urban squirrels, especially in view of increasing temperatures globally.

Co-occurrence patterns and habitat selection of the mountain hare, European hare, and European rabbit in urban areas of Sweden

Assessing the underlying mechanisms of species co-occurrence patterns can be challenging as biotic and abiotic factors are hard to disentangle. To date, few studies have investigated co-occurrence patterns of mammals within urban areas. As urban areas are increasingly used as habitat by wildlife, there is a need for a better understanding of urban ecology to facilitate human-wildlife co-existence. Here, we investigated co-occurrence patterns and habitat selection of the European hare (Lepus europaeus), mountain hare (L. timidus), and European rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) inside urban areas of Sweden, using joint species distribution models and generalized linear mixed models based on citizen science observations. All three species were observed within urban areas, but European hares and rabbits appear to be more successful urban colonizers compared to mountain hares. Overall, our findings suggested that urban occurrence by all three lagomorphs was related to suitable conditions within the distribution of each species (e.g., climate and elevation), rather than by the presence of other lagomorph species or specific land cover types within urban areas. On a finer spatial scale, European hares and rabbits generally selected for green urban areas and mountain hares for residential gardens, which likely constitute suitable foraging sites. Moreover, overlap in activity times between European hares and rabbits was mediated by land cover type and sympatry. Our findings contribute to the understanding of urban ecology and provide insights for management measures of the three lagomorphs in urban areas of Sweden.

Bird lineages colonizing urban habitats have diversified at high rates across deep time.

AimUrbanization exposes species to novel ecological conditions. Some species thrive in urban areas, whereas many others are excluded from these human‐made environments. Previous analyses suggest that the ability to cope with rapid environmental change is associated with long‐term patterns of diversification, but whether the suite of traits associated with the ability to colonize urban environments is linked to this process remains poorly understood.LocationWorld.Time periodCurrent.Major taxa studiedPasserine birds.MethodsWe applied macroevolutionary models to a large dataset of passerine birds to compare the evolutionary history of urban‐tolerant species with that of urban‐avoidant species. Specifically, we examined models of state‐dependent speciation and extinction to assess the macroevolution of urban tolerance as a binary trait, in addition to models of quantitative trait‐dependent diversification based on relative urban abundance. We also ran simulation‐based model assessments to explore potential sources of bias.ResultsWe provide evidence that historically, species with traits promoting urban colonization have undergone faster diversification than urban‐avoidant species, indicating that urbanization favours clades with a historical tendency towards rapid speciation or reduced extinction. In addition, we find that past transitions towards states that currently impede urban colonization by passerines have been more frequent than in the opposite direction. Furthermore, we find a portion of urban‐avoidant passerines to be recent and to undergo fast diversification. All highly supported models give this result consistently.Main conclusionsUrbanization is mainly associated with the loss of lineages that are inherently more vulnerable to extinction over deep time, whereas cities tend to be colonized by less vulnerable lineages, for which urbanization might be neutral or positive in terms of longer‐term diversification. Urban avoidance is associated with high rates of recent diversification for some clades occurring in regions with relatively intact natural ecosystems and low current levels of urbanization.

Urbanization processes drive divergence at the major histocompatibility complex in a common waterbird.

Urban sprawl is one of the most common landscape alterations occurring worldwide, and there is a growing list of species that are recognised to have adapted to urban life. To be successful, processes of urban colonization by wildlife require a broad spectrum of phenotypic (e.g., behavioural or physiological) adjustments, but evidence for genetic adaptations is much scarcer. One hypothesis proposes that different pathogen-driven selective pressures between urban and non-urban landscapes leads to adaptations in host immune genes. Here, we examined urbanization-related differentiation at the key pathogen-recognition genes of vertebrate adaptive immunity-the major histocompatibility complex (MHC)-in a common waterbird, the Eurasian coot (Fulica atra). Samples were collected from an old urban population (established before the 1950s), a new urban population (established in the 2000s), and two rural populations from central Poland. We found strong significant divergence (as measured with Jost’s D) at the MHC class II between the old urban population and the remaining (new urban and rural) populations. Also, there was a moderate, but significant divergence at the MHC between the new urban population and two rural populations, while no divergence was found between the two rural populations. The total number of MHC alleles and the number of private (population-specific) MHC alleles was lower in old urban populations, as compared to the rural ones. These patterns of differentiation at the MHC were not consistent with patterns found for neutral genetic markers (microsatellites), which showed few differences between the populations. Our results indicate that MHC allele composition depended on the level of anthropogenic disturbance and the time which passed since urban colonization, possibly due to the processes of genotype sorting and local adaptation. As such, our study contributes to the understanding of genetic mechanisms associated with urbanization processes in wildlife.

The selection of anthropogenic habitat by wildlife as an ecological consequence of rural exodus: empirical examples from Spain

The increasing urbanization of the landscape is a major component of global change worldwide. However, it is puzzling that wildlife is selecting anthropogenic habitats despite the availability of apparently high–quality semi–natural (i.e. less intensively modified) habitats. Definitive explanations for this process are still lacking. We have previously suggested that colonization of the urban habitat is initially triggered by ecological processes that take place outside urban areas as a consequence of past rural exodus. Here we present a diverse array of examples of selection of several types of anthropogenic habitat by wildlife in Spain (including transportation infrastructure, human–exclusion areas, urban areas under construction, cities, reservoirs, quarries and landfills) in support of this idea. Wildlife is moving out of its historical ecological refuges and losing fear of harmless urban humans. Mesopredators are rebounding by mesopredator release, due to ceased human persecution, and shrubs and trees are claiming former agricultural habitats. Together, these factors force many species to move to urbanized areas where they find open habitats, food associated with these habitats, and protection against predation. Hence, the classical balance of costs and benefits that takes place once inside urban areas, would actually be a second step of the process of colonization of urban areas. A better understanding of the initial triggers of urban colonization could help us increase the biological value of human–made habitats for wildlife in the future.

Artificial light at night as a driver of urban colonization by an avian predator

Urbanization and artificial light at night (ALAN) are major drivers of local biodiversity losses causing community alterations, disruption of predator-prey interactions, and ultimately, promotion of cascading effects. However, some species can colonize urban environments. We explore the role of ALAN as a driver of the colonization of urban environments by a nocturnal avian predator, the burrowing owl Athene cunicularia. We studied in a suburban locality in La Pampa, Argentina: (1) prey availability with pitfall traps under streetlights and control sites; (2) diet by analyzing pellets; (3) space use by deploying GPS data-loggers to breeding owls; (4) nesting habitat selection by comparing environmental variables at nest and random locations; and (5) productivity by correlating environmental variables with the number of fledglings. First, streetlights altered the invertebrate availability, attracting them to illuminated areas. Second, the owl diet was more similar to the invertebrate taxa trapped at pitfall traps under streetlights than that in control traps. Third, owl space use was determined by streetlights. Owls spent more time around light sources, particularly during the nighttime. Fourth, the most important habitat feature influencing the nesting habitat selection was the distance to streetlight. Owls selected areas close to streetlights for nesting. Finally, productivity was not explained by any of our habitat variables. We demonstrate that ALAN alters the availability of invertebrates and plays a role in the diet, space use, and occupation of urban burrowing owls. Streetlights increase foraging efficiency for owls due to the clumping of prey attracted to lights. This predator-prey relationship might be only supported in suburban environments where low urbanization levels let burrowing owls nest in bare ground areas, and invertebrates are attracted to ALAN from surrounding wilder areas.

An Idiosyncratic Building in Amasya? Early Ottoman Architecture and the Waqfiyya of the Yakub Pasha Çilehane-Mosque

Abstract This article examines the waqfiyya of the earliest surviving Halveti lodge, the Yakub Pasha Çilehane-Mosque in Amasya. Built in 1412 by the Ottoman vizier Yakub Pasha for his shaykh, Gümüşlüoğlu Abdurrahman, the foundation of this building stands at the intersection of historical processes such as the development of Ottoman architecture and Sufism, and urban colonization in Anatolia during Ottoman expansion in the fifteenth century. The particular layout of the Çilehane contributes to debates on the role of form vs. function in the categorization and naming of early Ottoman T-shaped buildings. Its waqfiyya, however, is the earliest record of the practices, organization, and rituals of the Halveti Sufi order and the networks involved in its transfer from Iran to the Ottoman world. In addition to providing the Arabic text, translation, and photographs of the waqfiyya, the article discusses the potential of this recently unearthed document to contribute to the abovementioned fifteenth-century debates.

Genes acting in synapses and neuron projections are early targets of selection during urban colonization.

When a species colonizes an urban habitat, differences in the environment can create novel selection pressures. Successful colonization will further lead to demographic perturbations and genetic drift, which can interfere with selection. Here, we test for consistent urban selection signals in multiple populations of the burrowing owl (Athene cunicularia), a species that colonized South American cities just a few decades ago. We sequenced 213 owls from three urban-rural population pairs and performed a genome-wide comparison of urban against rural birds. We further studied genome-wide associations with flight initiation distance, a measure of harm avoidance in which urban and rural birds are known to differ. Based on four samples taken over nine years from one of the urban populations, we investigated temporal allele frequency changes. The genomic data were also used to identify urban-specific signatures of selective sweeps. Single genomic sites did not reach genome-wide significance for any association. However, a gene-set analysis on the strongest signals from these four selection scans suggests a significant enrichment of genes with known functions related to synapses and neuron projections. We identified 98 genes predominantly expressed in the brain, of which many may play a role in the modulation of brain connectivity and consequently in cognitive function and motivational behaviour during urbanization. Furthermore, polymorphisms in the promoter region of the synaptic SERT gene - one of the two candidates known to correlate with urban colonization in birds - associated with the habitat in which individuals lived (urban vs. rural).

Comparison of multiple behavioral traits between urban and rural squirrels

Recent rapid urbanization has imposed novel challenges to animals. Urban animals alter their behaviors such as increased boldness, exploration, and aggressiveness to cope with anthropogenic disturbance. However, most previous studies were highly biased toward birds and examined a limited number of behavioral traits, often employing species-specific methods. Thus, we still do not fully understand how other taxa behaviorally adjust to urbanization. In this study, we investigated multiple behavioral traits between urban and rural Eurasian red squirrels, Sciurus vulgaris, which is one of the typical urban colonizers across northern Eurasia. The open field test (OFT) and mirror image stimulation (MIS), two well-established methods for quantifying animal personality, were employed for behavioral comparisons. We also used several other measurements, such as flight distances and the number of mobbing calls directed at humans. The principal component analysis approach for OFT and MIS provided an activity-shyness axis and stress response axis in OFT and sociability-avoidance axis in MIS, which had significant repeatability within individuals. However, most axes were not significantly different between urban and rural areas, while the stress response of urban squirrels was significantly weaker than that of rural conspecifics. On the contrary, human-related behaviors such as flight distance and the number of mobbing calls toward humans were significantly different between urban and rural habitats. Therefore, behavioral modifications reported in previous studies might reflect only human-related disturbances: some urban animals such as mammals may be able to flexibly change behaviors depending on the situation, while their innate character or personality remains unchanged. This study underscores the importance of measuring multiple behaviors using different methods in non-avian species, focusing especially on human-associated behaviors.

Sex in the city: sexual selection and urban colonization in passerines.

Urbanization leads to a rapid and drastic transformation of habitats, forcing native fauna to manage novel ecological challenges or to move. Sexual selection is a powerful evolutionary force, which is sometimes predicted to enhance the ability of species to adapt to novel environments because it allows females to choose high-quality males, but other times is predicted to reduce the viability of populations because it pushes males beyond naturally selected optima. However, we do not know whether or how sexual selection contributes to the likelihood that animals will establish in urban areas. We use a comparative analysis of passerine birds to test whether traits associated with pre- and post-mating sexual selection predict successful colonization of urban areas. We found that plumage dichromatism was negatively associated with urban tolerance, but found no relationship with sexual size dimorphism or testes mass relative to body mass. While we cannot determine the exact reason why species with high plumage dichromatism occur less in cities, it is likely that urban areas increase the costs of expressing bright coloration due, for instance, to dietary constraints, limited male parental care or increased predation.

Urban colonization through multiple genetic lenses: The city-fox phenomenon revisited.

Urbanization is driving environmental change on a global scale, creating novel environments for wildlife to colonize. Through a combination of stochastic and selective processes, urbanization is also driving evolutionary change. For instance, difficulty in traversing human‐modified landscapes may isolate newly established populations from rural sources, while novel selective pressures, such as altered disease risk, toxicant exposure, and light pollution, may further diverge populations through local adaptation. Assessing the evolutionary consequences of urban colonization and the processes underlying them is a principle aim of urban evolutionary ecology. In the present study, we revisited the genetic effects of urbanization on red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) that colonized Zurich, Switzerland. Through use of genome‐wide single nucleotide polymorphisms and microsatellite markers linked to the major histocompatibility complex (MHC), we expanded upon a previous neutral microsatellite study to assess population structure, characterize patterns of genetic diversity, and detect outliers associated with urbanization. Our results indicated the presence of one large evolutionary cluster, with substructure evident between geographic sampling areas. In urban foxes, we observed patterns of neutral and functional diversity consistent with founder events and reported increased differentiation between populations separated by natural and anthropogenic barriers. We additionally reported evidence of selection acting on MHC‐linked markers and identified outlier loci with putative gene functions related to energy metabolism, behavior, and immunity. We concluded that demographic processes primarily drove patterns of diversity, with outlier tests providing preliminary evidence of possible urban adaptation. This study contributes to our overall understanding of urban colonization ecology and emphasizes the value of combining datasets when examining evolutionary change in an increasingly urban world.

La naturaleza en la fotografía de Virxilio Viéitez

The present essay suggests an approach to the archive of Galician rural photographer Virxilio Vieitez (1930-2008) from the theoretical view of ecocriticism, with the aim of delve into the role of nature in his photographs. The analysis is organized in three points; the first, representation of landscape, poses a characterization of the unit landscape of the region in which the photographer performed his work, Terra de Montes (Pontevedra), and studies the role that humans play in it. The second, animals, offers a proposal of classification for the species that appear in the archive according to their relation to human being and introduces the notion of “change”, essential in the third point, the image of the rural, which defines the vision of the village the archive gives and its chronological variations. In the conclusion the previous points are brought to the current reality of rural Galicia with the objective of inspiring a response from rural activism to the process of “urban colonization” of the rural area that is demonstrated throughout the work.