Urban Areas In Greece Research Articles

Estimating the importance of environmental factors influencing the urban heat island for urban areas in Greece. A machine learning approach

Estimating the importance of environmental factors influencing the urban heat island for urban areas in Greece. A machine learning approach

Exploring Thermal Discomfort during Mediterranean Heatwaves through Softscape and Hardscape ENVI-Met Simulation Scenarios

The study examines the effectiveness of various design strategies in alleviating the impacts of heatwaves in the Mediterranean region, focusing on a densely populated post-refugee urban area in Greece. By analyzing five different design scenarios, the study aims to identify the most efficient approach to mitigate thermal stress outdoors. The five design scenarios include changes in albedo values and coatings and alterations in the number and type of trees. The methodology includes a literature review, field work and microclimate simulations with the use of ENVI-met 5.6.1. The study evaluates ENVI-met data through potential air temperature, PET and UTCI analysis. The experimental results indicate that the most effective strategy is associated with urban greening. In particular, increasing tree cover considerably reduces air temperature, PET and UTCI values by 4 to 10 degrees Celsius. This finding highlights the potential of urban greening to enhance thermal comfort and combat heatwave effects. The research findings may be useful to landscape architects and urban designers, in light of a more climate-responsive urban design in the Mediterranean region. Future research may also assess the combined impact of multiple mitigation strategies on a larger scale, informing evidence-based policies for heatwave resilience.

Regional Inequalities in Diagnosis and Therapies in Greece regarding Autism Spectrum Disorders

IntroductionAutism spectrum disorders (ASD) represent a major public health concern on a global scale. The increasing prevalence of ASD worldwide, coupled with the arising demand for treatments, underscores its important role in the public mental health discourse. Ensuring the equitable integration of children with ASD and their families into all aspects of society becomes an imperative task, in order to eradicate the stigma associated with the broad spectrum of autism, encompassing both visible and concealed dimensions.ObjectivesThe primary objective of this study was to determine the crude prevalence of ASD in Greece nationwide, while also examining regional disparities in both prevalence and therapies. The study spanned a three-year period from February 2019 to February 2022 and relied on retrospective data sourced from the Greek National Organization for Healthcare Services Provision (EOPYY).MethodsEOPYY provided de-identified data, including information such as sex, age, diagnosis, and treatment for each child, facilitated by hashed social security numbers. Statistical analysis of the dataset was performed using the open-source statistical program R.ResultsA total of 18,245 children aged 2 -17 years were diagnosed with ASD in Greece, representing a nationwide crude prevalence rate of 1.16%. Regional disparities were evident, with prevalence rates ranging from 0.49% in the North Aegean to 1.57% in Crete. Over the three-year study period, a total of 15,328,327 non-medical therapies were prescribed, corresponding to an annual average of 264 therapies per child. Statistically significant differences between the thirteen regions in Greece were observed, ranging from 230 to 323 annual therapies per child.ConclusionsOur findings align Greece’s ASD prevalence with the global estimate of 1 in 100 children, as per the World Health Organization. Disparities between rural and urban areas in Greece may be attributed to differences in diagnostic procedures and the availability and accessibility of specialized services for autistic individuals. Thus, the establishment of a national surveillance system for ASD is recommended to enhance our understanding of the autism spectrum, monitor changes in prevalence, and identify potential contributing factors to autism conditions. Furthermore, these evidence-based results offer invaluable insights for crafting policies concerning healthcare, education, and employment for individuals with ASD in order to ensure the development of people with autism, their wellbeing, and a good quality of life.Disclosure of InterestNone Declared

A Computational Fluid Dynamics Modelling Approach for the Numerical Verification of the Bioclimatic Design of a Public Urban Area in Greece

Recent recordings of urban overheating reveal a dramatic increase in cities’ population exposure to heatwaves. Heatwaves’ implications are escalated in urban environments due to the intensification of the Urban Heat Island (UHI) effect. To combat the overheating and UHI adverse effects, novel urban rehabilitation actions are needed based on reliable predictions of appropriate Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) (such as pedestrian-level air temperature and thermal comfort) for alternative design scenarios. The objective of the current study is to present the application of a previously developed Computational Fluid Dynamics (CFD) model for the calculation of urban microclimatic conditions for the assessment of the UHI and thermal-comfort conditions in a central urban area in the city of Heraklion in Crete, Greece. Empirical validation of the model is performed through comparisons with monitored microclimate data (i.e., air temperature, relative humidity, wind speed) and actual sensation vote recordings found in another research study. In compliance with the latter, the validation campaign is conducted for a typical hot summer day in July 2009 from 10:00 to 16:00. The model is then used to assess the UHI effects for both the existing urban configuration and a given suggested environmental upgrade of the space. Simulations of the existing situation reveal that the squares located in the studied area already stand for efficient resistances to urban overheating, and heat vulnerabilities are detected mainly in non-shaded traffic and pedestrian roads perimetric to the squares. Based on the CFD simulations, the suggested environmental upgrading plan exhibits a reduction in the peak mean air temperature of 0.46 °C, and thermal comfort is improved by at least 5% (based on SET) throughout the studied area in summer. At the same time, simulations of winter conditions suggest that there are limited potential pedestrian thermal-sensation and building heating penalties under the considered renovation scenario.

Autonomous Home Composting Units for Urban Areas in Greece: The Case Study of the Municipality of Rhodes

A significant issue is reducing the amount of biological waste that is disposed of in landfills, particularly in high-density residential areas. The Wastes Framework Directive (98/2008), in particular, sets forward the legal requirements for source separation in the European Union’s (EU) environmental legislation. The directive sets a target for separate collection of 10% of the organic waste produced in each municipality by 2030, especially with regard to organic waste. The pilot experience of an integrated biowaste management system that supports source separation and urban composting in an Autonomous Composting Unit (ACU) was presented in this study. The Municipality of Rhodes installed five ACUs in various locations. Used food and green waste are the two types of waste that are deposited in the ACUs. The development of a system for the collection of produced biowaste and its treatment at the source, without producing a nuisance, within an urban area, is the goal of this innovation. Since landfilling of mixed municipal solid waste has long been a common practice on the island of Rhodes, as well as in many other locations of insular and mainland Greece, this technique was introduced as a novel implementation and innovation for the region. The results showed that biowaste source separation was successfully carried out by citizens, resulting in high-purity feed. All ACUs produce compost that is of a standard quality. In accordance with the principles of the circular economy, this study showed that ACUs are a sustainable solution for taking a closed unit approach to the biowaste management problem in urban areas.

Μorphological Integration of Loan Words in Kaliardá

This article deals with lexical borrowing and the morphological integration of loan words in Kaliardá, a Greek-based antilanguage, spoken in the urban areas of Greece by socially marginalized communities of cross-dressers, transgender people, and gay men. It is shown that the accommodation of most loans follows the general rules of Modern Greek morphology, namely, the stem-based word formation and compulsory inflection. However, for a considerable part of the borrowed items, there are certain morphological deviances compared to loan formation in Greek. More particularly, there is an overuse of the feminine grammatical gender, assigned to -human nouns, contrary to a neuterization tendency displayed by the Greek language, while the masculine grammatical gender is scarcely employed, and a significant number of feminine loans end in -o and -u in the citation form. Verbal loans do not substantially differ from those in Greek, with the exception of the frequent use of verbal periphrastic formations, consisting of an auxiliary inflected verb type, avélo or vuélo (both loans themselves), and a nominal item. Sometimes, avélo is also employed as a mediator for the integration of English verbs. The data under examination are drawn from a Kaliardá dictionary. Their accuracy is checked with 10 Kaliardá speakers in 2 big Greek cities, Athens and Patras, and they are enriched by a small oral corpus of 32 words collected through interviews. The investigated data comprise items from Italian, French and English, three principal donor languages in Kaliardá, but there are also loans from other languages, mainly from Romani and Turkish, but also from Albanian, German and Spanish.

Urban Acupuncture as a Method of Open Space Regeneration in Greek Ex-Refugee Areas. The Case of Nikea, Piraeus

The paper explores the potential of implementing the principles of urban acupuncture in a selected Greek case study, taking into account international experience in the field. The research includes literature review and field work. The area of study is Nikea, an ex-refugee urban area in the Attica metropolitan region. It was founded during the 1930s to host refugees from Asia Minor. The initial Hippodamian grid offers beneficial intermediate communal spaces inside each city block and there are also larger green spaces in proximity. However, the area suffers from urban blight owed largely to the poor quality of preservation of the old refugee housing estates. A mixture of factors contributes to the complex contemporary situation characterized by opportunities and challenges. On the one hand, there is great potential for regenerating the existing intermediate communal spaces and on the other decaying refugee houses and vulnerable households intricate the already convoluted situation. The paper provides cartographic depiction and categorization of the existing open spaces highlighting also contemporary socio-spatial challenges and market driven limitations. The research describes the obstacles that hinder the activation of “urban sensitive points” in terms of urban acupuncture, also advocating for possible solutions. The paper opens dialogue on the Greek case study in terms of urban acupuncture with the view to suggest strategies to foster socio-spatial cohesion in degraded ex -refugee urban areas. This is a pilot case study with further application in other post-refugee urban areas in Greece that share common socio-spatial attributes. Thus, the topic of the paper may have a greater impact within the Greek urban context.

Inventory of Commercial Cooking Activities and Emissions in a Typical Urban Area in Greece

The pollutants emitted during meal preparation in restaurants deteriorate the air quality. Thus, it is an environmental issue that needs to be addressed, especially in areas where these activities are densely located. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact on air quality from commercial cooking activities by performing a qualitative and quantitative analysis of the related parameters. The area of interest is located in the southeastern Mediterranean (Greater Athens area in Greece). Due to the lack of the necessary activity information, a survey was conducted. Emissions from the fuel burnt during the cooking procedures were calculated and it was found that, overall, 940.1 tonnes are attributed to commercial cooking activities annually (generated by classical pollutants, heavy metals, particulates and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon emissions). Comparing the contribution of different sources to the pollutants emitted, it was found that commercial cooking is responsible for about 0.6%, 0.8% and 1.0% of the total CO, NOx and PM10 values. Cooking organic aerosol (COA) and volatile organic compound (VOC) emissions from grilled meat were also calculated, accounting for 724.9 tonnes and 37.1 tonnes, respectively. Monthly, daily and hourly profiles of the cooking activities were developed and emissions were spatially disaggregated, indicating the city center as the area with higher values. Numerical simulations were performed with the WRF/CAMx modeling system and the results revealed a contribution of about 6% to the total PM10 concentrations in the urban center, where the majority of restaurants are located.

Towards decarbonizing road transport: Environmental and social benefit of vehicle fleet electrification in urban areas of Greece

The decarbonization of energy system requires the promotion of sustainable energy policies. Towards this direction, a holistic approach is required that is based on an in-depth analysis of the links related to the energy system transformation chain. Among others, implementing electrification of road transport is widely discussed, mainly to encounter climate change and environmental pollution in urban areas. This paper presents a methodological scheme to estimate environmental and social benefits (internalization of externalities) associated with the promotion of vehicle fleet electrification. Emphasis is given on urban scale, where electric vehicles have their main environmental advantage over conventional internal combustion engine vehicles. Demonstration of the applicability is performed for Greece, focusing on the three largest cities of the country. Reductions of energy consumption and emissions are estimated for two defined scenarios in the 2020–2050 period and the benefits to public are monetized. Among others, the scenario that intensively promotes electrification of vehicles, contributes to the avoidance of 10.200 Years of Life Lost due to premature mortality attributed to particulate pollution, saving more than 730 M€ as social benefit. These results can be used to assess the cost-benefit of energy and transport policies intended to promote vehicle fleet electrification in urban areas.

A Low-Cost Instrumentation System for Seismic Hazard Assessment in Urban Areas.

The development and application of a low-cost instrumentation system for seismic hazard assessment in urban areas are described in the present study. The system comprises a number of autonomous triaxial accelerographs, designed and manufactured in house and together with dedicated software for device configuration, data collection and further postprocessing. The main objective is to produce a detailed view of strong motion variability in urban areas, for at least light intensity strong motion events. The overall cost of the developed devices is at least ten times lower than the respective commercial units, hence their deployment as an ultra-dense network over the area of interest can be significantly cost-effective. This approach is considered an efficient complement to traditional microzonation procedures, which are typically based on relatively few actual recordings and the application of theoretical methodologies to assess the strong motion distribution. The manufactured devices adopt micro-electro-mechanical (MEMS) digital sensor technology for recording acceleration, whereas the accompanying software suite provides various configuration options, quick browsing, analyzing and exporting of the recorded events, as well as GIS type functionality for seamlessly producing explicit seismic hazard maps of the considered area. The evaluation of system performance was based on shaking table and real field comparisons against high accuracy commercial accelerographs. The study concludes with a real application of the proposed system in the form of an ultra-dense network installed at the city of Lefkada, an earthquake prone urban area in Greece, and the following compilation of explicit shakemaps.

PRESCHOOL PUPILS MENTAL REPRESENTATIONS ON ELECTRICITY, SIMPLE ELECTRICAL CIRCUIT AND ELECTRICAL APPLIANCES

This research paper seeks to determine 5-6 years-old pupils’ representations about the general characteristics of the elementary electricity, the electrical appliances and their reasoning about the consisting elements of a simple electrical circuit. The sample consisted of 131 children from public kindergarten classes in an urban area in Greece. Data were collected through semi-structured individual interviews. The analysis of the qualitative data showed that although the preschoolers had fruitful representations, the majority of them encountered difficulties on approaching several aspects of the phenomena. Pupils’ reasoning about the phenomena also seemed to be without a stable and coherent structure. The need for a categorization of preschoolers’ representations based on the use of a system of concrete criteria and the prospect of a didactic approach leading to the creation of a precursor model is designated. Article visualizations:

Teachers’ primary concerns in a case of educational innovation introduction in primary schools in Greece

By converting all-day primary schools of suburban and urban areas in Greece into schools that implement the Comprehensive Reformed Educational Programme (CREP), a set of innovations were implemented, significantly altering the Greek school. The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of selected variables over concerns of teachers who work at such schools. Additionally, this research asked the teachers to identify the professional development support and interventions required to enable them to make better use of the Book-reading Advancement (Philanagnosia) Activities innovation. Teachers’ administrative and pedagogical guidance executives, based on the above, will design the necessary interventions to positively address teachers’ concerns and implement the specific innovation in the most effective manner. Overall, the study found that higher teacher concerns were task related, with a significant record of information and self-concerns, which may indicate that the introduction of the innovation was not properly designed to address teachers’ primary concerns.

Vulnerability to Coastal Flooding of Industrial Urban Areas in Greece

The scope of this article is to present an index developed to assess the vulnerability to coastal flooding of urban areas which house major industrial activity. Coastal flooding can be a threat to life and to socioeconomic and environmental assets, while the additional impacts of an industrial accident due to coastal flooding may aggravate relevant risks. Therefore, there is a need to integrate tools able to consider, at different complexity levels, the interactions between various parameters in order to effectively assess the vulnerability of such areas. This paper illustrates the development and use of a composite vulnerability index in the risk assessment process, encompassing indicators relevant to the industrial activity. In addition, the paper suggests the differentiation of the relative importance of the considered indicators through a weighting procedure. Usually, the indicators used to create such a composite index are averaged, since decision makers confronting the ambiguity of complex phenomena are reluctant to articulate subjective weights. The novelty of the proposed approach is the use of the CRiteria Importance Through Intercriteria Correlation (CRITIC) method to extract objective weights of the information carried by each indicator in the specific research context. The application study refers to six urban areas with strong industrial characteristics in Greece. The results have been used for comparing and ranking the study areas according to the calculated indices, as well as to highlight the parameters affecting vulnerability in each case.

Wellness Tourism development in urban areas: the case of the Holistic Festival of Syros island, Greece

As tourism is the largest and most profitable industry in Greece, attempts have been made in recent years to develop new types of alternative tourism that may further fulfil traveller's needs for quality, new activities and advanced experiences. Wellness tourism is a novel and attractive activity, as it reflects a more active lifestyle and focuses on well living, stress management, relaxation and meditation. The maintenance of physical health and the introduction of proper nutrition and healthy lifestyle are the primary goals of wellness tourism, followed by mental development activities in an environmental-friendly accommodation. To investigate the prospects of wellness tourism in urban areas in Greece, we used a questionnaire addressed to people attending and organizing the “holistic Festival” of Syros Island, Greece, that took place on July 2017. Overall 53 questionnaires were obtained, 50 from participants and three from organizers. Wellness tourism seems to be a unique experience for the tourist, as it is both therapeutic-healing and entertaining, especially in an attractive environment. The study revealed that the development of wellness tourism can result in important economic benefits for a destination and may lead to viable growth of wellness tourism in many urban destinations in Greece, if a targeted strategy is adopted. This strategy should take into account developmental policy and strategy issues, management of entrepreneurship issues, financial limitations and advertisement/promotion and time-scheduling issues of the destination.

Assessing Health Effects and Soundscape Analysis as New Mitigation Actions Concerning the Aircraft Noise Impact in Small- and Middle-Size Urban Areas in Greece

In 2013 and 2014, two main International Airports in Greece were evaluated through the European directive on noise environment 2002/49/EC: “Nikos Kazantzakis” International Airport of Heraklion Crete and “Ioannis—Kapodistrias” International Airport in Corfu, both located in highly touristic areas of Greece. Acoustic measurement’s campaign, environmental noise mapping simulations and population exposure to noise were implemented in order to produce a complete Strategic Noise Map. Correlated to this acoustic approach, a comprehensive interview campaign and a detailed soundscape analysis were also conducted in both airports’ adjacent areas (Alikarnassos district in Heraklion and the peninsula of Canoni in Corfu City) in order to understand the impact of aircraft movements on both local residents and tourists, and analyze the perception of the soundscapes. A similar evaluation was also executed in order to assess possible health effects by using the WHO’s DALY’s (Disability Adjusted Life Year) metrics for environmental noise in relation to the exposure of the population. This paper presents the main results of these representative case studies, attempting a combined assessment of both health effects and soundscape characteristics to be used as evaluation tools towards the management and the rehabilitation acoustic environment characterized mainly by aircraft noise in touristic areas.

Spatial and temporal disaggregation of natural emissions in urban areas in Greece for the period 2010–2013 and future projections

Emission inventories for particulate matter (PM 2.5 and PM 2.5-10 ) from natural sources were created for the Athens and Thessaloniki metropolitan areas and the greater area of Volos for the period 2010–2013. The inventories include primary windblown dust emissions from agricultural and vacant lands, primary sea salt particles emissions from the breaking of waves at the Sea Shore-surf zone and the bursting of bubbles from oceanic whitecaps - Open Ocean, and emissions of BVOCs (Biogenic Volatile Organic Compounds), precursor to PM. The objective of this work was to study the seasonal variation of natural PM emissions in the areas of interest and their spatial allocation. Weighting factors, specific to each pollutant, source and area, were calculated for the disaggregation of annual emissions to monthly and daily values and their allocation on high resolution grids. There was no significant seasonal variation observed in the natural PM emissions while BVOCs emissions were increased during the warm period due to the enhanced solar radiation and temperature. The results of the calculations were compared to values of the period 2000–2010 and it was found that natural BVOCs emissions during the period 2010–2013 were enhanced compared to 2000–2010 whereas natural PM emissions have lowered. Moreover, the analysis focused on the effects from possible future changes in land cover and environmental conditions to the temporal and spatial variation of natural emissions over the areas using specific scenarios. • Monthly emissions of primary PM from natural sources in three urban areas in Greece were calculated. • The BVOCs emissions during the period 2010–2013 were enhanced compared to 2000–2010 whereas natural PM emissions have lowered. • The projected changes in temperature and precipitation did not affect considerably the temporal and spatial distribution of natural emissions. • Considerable emission changes were observed for significant land use modifications together with the prevalence of dry conditions.

A Social Assessment of the Usage of Renewable Energy Sources and Its Contribution to Life Quality: The Case of an Attica Urban Area in Greece

The aim of this paper is to analyze and evaluate the use of Renewable Energy Sources (RES) and their contribution to citizens’ life quality. For this purpose, a survey was conducted using a sample of 400 residents in an urban area of the Attica region in Greece. The methods of Principal Components Analysis and Logit Regression were used on a dataset containing the respondents’ views on various aspects of RES. Two statistical models were constructed for the identification of the main variables that are associated with the RES’ usage and respondents’ opinion on their contribution to life quality. The conclusions that can be drawn show that the respondents are adequately informed about some of the RES’ types while most of them use at least one of the examined types of RES. The benefits that RES offer, were the most crucial variable in determining both respondents’ perceptions on their usage and on their contribution to life quality.

Public perception of flood risk in flash flood prone areas of Eastern Mediterranean: The case of Attica Region in Greece

Even though flooding is one of the most destructive natural hazards in the Mediterranean, causing hundreds of deaths and economic losses and despite the significant efforts of civil protection authorities of all levels to protect human lives and assets, a critical piece of information, that is how the general population perceives flood risk, is not well known, especially in the Eastern part of the region. This work uses structured questionnaires to obtain basic information on how the population of one of the largest urban areas in Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean understands flood risk, risk mitigation and to what degree they take protection measures, they trust relevant institutions and they are aware of flood warning and flood protection actions. Then, the study examines potential correlations of the findings with respondents’ demographics.Results show that respondents rank floods third in terms of importance behind earthquakes and forest fires that are important risk in the region, although the vast majority believes the risk is increasing, mostly due to anthropogenic factors. Responses illustrate low levels of trust in authorities and low levels of knowledge of protection actions and awareness regarding floods, as well as low levels of preparedness, in terms of taking private mitigation measures. Respondents’ characteristics such as age, gender, previous flood experience and marital status are show statistical correlation with responses, as individuals present different perception and levels of knowledge and preparedness. Overall, the findings illustrate the need for better education and awareness campaigns regarding flood risk and mitigation measures.

A Cultural-Historical Study of the Development of Children’s Scientific Thinking about Clouds in Everyday Life

Research into early childhood children’s understandings in science has a long history. However, few studies have drawn upon cultural-historical theory to frame their research. Mostly, what is known has come from studies which have examined individual understandings of science concepts, without reference to culture, context or the collective nature in which children learn, play and live. The cultural-historical study reported in this paper examines the process of constructing understandings about clouds by kindergarten children (16 children, aged 4.5 to 6 years, mean age of 5. 3 years) in an urban area of Greece. The research examines how children form relevant representations of clouds, how they conceptualize meteorological understandings in everyday life and how understandings transform through communications with others. The collection of the data was achieved through expanded, open-type conversations between pairs of children and one of the researchers, totalling 4 h of data. In depth analysis, using Rogoff’s three foci of analysis (personal, interpersonal and context focusing) allowed for an examination of children’s representations of clouds, how social and cultural factors framed thinking and gave insights into the processes of scientific thinking. On this basis, theoretical and methodological insights of this study of natural science by young children are discussed.

Evolution of air pollution source contributions over one decade, derived by PM10 and PM2.5 source apportionment in two metropolitan urban areas in Greece

Metropolitan Urban areas in Greece have been known to suffer from poor air quality, due to variety of emission sources, topography and climatic conditions favouring the accumulation of pollution. While a number of control measures have been implemented since the 1990s, resulting in reductions of atmospheric pollution and changes in emission source contributions, the financial crisis which started in 2009 has significantly altered this picture. The present study is the first effort to assess the contribution of emission sources to PM10 and PM2.5 concentration levels and their long-term variability (over 5–10 years), in the two largest metropolitan urban areas in Greece (Athens and Thessaloniki). Intensive measurement campaigns were conducted during 2011–2012 at suburban, urban background and urban traffic sites in these two cities. In addition, available datasets from previous measurements in Athens and Thessaloniki were used in order to assess the long-term variability of concentrations and sources. Chemical composition analysis of the 2011–2012 samples showed that carbonaceous matter was the most abundant component for both PM size fractions. Significant increase of carbonaceous particle concentrations and of OC/EC ratio during the cold period, especially in the residential urban background sites, pointed towards domestic heating and more particularly wood (biomass) burning as a significant source. PMF analysis further supported this finding. Biomass burning was the largest contributing source at the two urban background sites (with mean contributions for the two size fractions in the range of 24–46%). Secondary aerosol formation (sulphate, nitrate & organics) was also a major contributing source for both size fractions at the suburban and urban background sites. At the urban traffic site, vehicular traffic (exhaust and non-exhaust emissions) was the source with the highest contributions, accounting for 44% of PM10 and 37% of PM2.5, respectively. The long-term variability of emission sources in the two cities (over 5–10 years), assessed through a harmonized application of the PMF technique on recent and past year data, clearly demonstrates the effective reduction in emissions during the last decade due to control measures and technological development; however, it also reflects the effects of the financial crisis in Greece during these years, which has led to decreased economic activities and the adoption of more polluting practices by the local population in an effort to reduce living costs.