Urban Adaptation Research Articles

Adaptation strategies for urban warming: Assessing the impacts of heat waves on cooling capabilities in Chongqing, China

Cool and green roofs are two important adaptation strategies to mitigate urbanization-driven warming. Assessment of the impact of some extreme weather events on their cooling capability can help us understand the potential of urban adaptation to future climate change and then make scientific management decisions. We used the weather research and forecasting (WRF) model to simulate the changes in 2-m air temperature caused by urban land expansion in 2010–2030 and cool/green roofs over the main urban areas of Chongqing and then focused on a comparative analysis of temperature variations between heat wave and nonheat wave periods. The summer daily averaged warming induced by urban land expansion from 2010 to 2030 in the heat wave and nonheat wave periods was 0.82 °C and 0.62 °C, respectively. Under the influences of cool and green roofs, the cooling extent over most urban areas was larger during heat wave days than during nonheat wave days and even spread to the surrounding nonurban areas. Therefore, heat waves did not trigger a significant increment of daily cooling intensity over the urban areas. The local offsetting rates (the ability of cooling by an adaptive strategy to offset urban warming) of CRs and GRs in heat waves was lower than that in nonheat waves. So heat waves will weaken the urban adaptations to future urbanization-driven warming.

Potential Ecological Distributions of Urban Adapters and Urban Exploiters for the Sustainability of the Urban Bird Network

The bird community in urban areas indicates the species-specific adaptability to urban conditions such as the increase in man-made habitats. Urban adapters and urban exploiters, two groups that make up most of the urban birds, were assessed to determine their suitable habitat and explain their distribution, as well as to determine the environmental predictors for the two bird groups assemblages in Depok, one of Jakarta’s satellite cities. We used the point-count method to survey the birds in three habitat types, green spaces, residentials, and roadside, and then we used Maximum Entropy (MaxEnt) to analyze the species distribution modeling. We also the predicted habitat distributions for the urban adapters and urban exploiters based on several environmental predictors. Our results suggest that both urban adapters and urban exploiters were abundant in residential areas. Eurasian tree sparrows (Passer montanus) and cave swiflets (Collocalia linchi) were the most common species in all three habitat types. On average, canopy cover was most extensive in green spaces followed by residential and roadside areas. Urban exploiters were likely to have a high suitability extent compared to urban adapters. The distributions of both groups were affected by the distance to perennial water, then by land function for the urban adapters, and distance to patches for the urban exploiters. The presence of urban adapters and urban exploiters in residential areas suggests that home gardens supported critical habitats when green spaces were unavailable.

The efficiency of the European Union’s development aid provided to Brazil in the context of historical, socio-economic, and political conditions of mutual relations Izabela Sara Opozda 1

The main aim of the article is to answer the research question about the efficiency of the European Union (EU) development programmes for Brazil. For the purposes of the analysis, the actual socioeconomic problems and the selected political problems of this country, related to insufficient infrastructure, unsustainable urbanisation of cities, the crisis of good governance and scant social activities to promote equality, education and health, were indicated. The analysis is limited to aid programmes, considering the financial frameworks of 2007–2013 and 2014–2020. This period is sufficient to conduct the research in the light of the emerging criticism of financial support to a country re-cognised as emerging power and one of the world’s largest economies. The analysis of this issue is also part of the current discussion on the issues of EU partnerships with the third countries, normative values and shaping the EU’s position as a political and trade partner, where the EU aims to strengthen its position and credibility as an actor in the changing geopolitical situation in the world. The conclusions indicate that the funds provided to Brazil by the European Union are mostly related to the development of urban infrastructure, adaptation and prevention of climate change, and investments in human capital. The Union runs a series of campaigns to promote gender equality, to inform about the dangers of HIV/AIDS, malaria and tuberculosis, and to support sexual health.

What we know and do not know about New Zealand’s urban microclimate: A critical review

Despite the remarkable contribution of urbanisation to socio-economic development, it has complicated negative impacts on the environment. The growth of urbanisation has noticeable adverse impacts on urban microclimate and parameters generating the urban heat island (UHI) effect. These impacts, exacerbated by the gradual influences of global warming over time, make urban microclimate changes more complex. The future urban development and climate change adaptation plans in New Zealand (NZ) show almost no evidence of considering the status of future urban microclimate, UHI and outdoor thermal comfort. An initial literature review showed a relatively small number of papers and grey literature on urban microclimate in NZ. This motivated the authors to explore the status of studies on the urban microclimate and the following impacts on UHI and outdoor thermal comfort in NZ. The results showed a relatively small body of knowledge on urban microclimate studies in research articles published and governmental reports in the context of NZ. Likewise, the inconsistency of research parameters and methods studied and the lack of validation in the available studies, plus the neglection of future urban development and urban morphology, limit the clarity of the scientific understanding of changes to the urban microclimate in NZ. The results of this study address the missing links and provide new insight for future studies. This study suggests providing models that consider the continuous changes to the urban microclimate considering the uncertainty of climate change impacts on weather factors such as temperature and airflow. Assessment of the impact of current and future urban morphology on UHI is necessary to develop optimised urban design guidance.

Selection in the city: Rapid and fine-scale evolution of urban eastern water dragons.

Oceanic archipelagos have long been treated as a Petri dish for studies of evolutionary and ecological processes. Like archipelagos, cities exhibit similar patterns and processes, such as the rapid phenotypic divergence of a species between urban and nonurban environments. However, on a local scale, cities can be highly heterogenous, where geographically close populations can experience dramatically different environmental conditions. Nevertheless, we are yet to understand the evolutionary and ecological implications for populations spread across a heterogenous cityscape. To address this, we compared neutral genetic divergence to quantitative trait divergence within three native riparian and four city park populations of an iconic urban adapter, the eastern water dragon. We demonstrated that selection is likely acting to drive divergence of snout-vent length and jaw width across native riparian populations that are geographically isolated and across city park populations that are geographically close yet isolated by urbanization. City park populations as close as 0.9km exhibited signs of selection-driven divergence to the same extent as native riparian populations isolated by up to 114.5km. These findings suggest that local adaptation may be occurring over exceptionally small geographic and temporal scales within a single metropolis, demonstrating that city parks can act as archipelagos for the study of rapid evolution.

Integrating Biophysical and Economic Assessment: Review of Nature-Based Adaptation to Urban Flood Extremes

Over the last decade, the potential of nature-based solutions (NBS) has been recognized to support climate change adaptation, by promoting sustainable urban planning. Nevertheless, a wider uptake of such solutions in urban areas faces different challenges and barriers. A comprehensive mapping of available NBS impact assessment methods could help to accelerate this process. There is, however, a lack of comprehensive systematization of economic analysis. This research aims to provide an overview of NBS impact evaluations by assessing how the scientific literature integrates such economic analysis into urban planning adaptation. A systematic review approach has been used to discuss the role of NBS in climate change adaptation. This review presents two main stages. Firstly, it identifies the biophysical–economic assessment of NBS adaptation measures to reduce urban flood extremes in coastal cities. Secondly, the NBS approaches were categorized based on the biophysical benefits (in terms of flood-risk reduction) related to each specific solution and the subsequent economic evaluation of such implementations. This research review revealed a low-level gap of integration between climate change issues and NBS analysis (i.e., it is commonly used as background condition). Most publications provide NBS biophysical impacts assessment, without combining these results with economic evaluation of the flood damages to finally achieve the avoided cost due to the implementation of such solutions. This work shows the growing interest on further research to develop spatially integrated environmental–economic assessment of NBS implementation, by highlighting the needs and opportunities of a trans-disciplinary approach to support policy-making in the framework of urban climate change adaptation.

Making Sense of Landscape: A New Study of Sound Propagation between Tarquinian Funerary and Habitation Settings

Abstract The study of pre-Roman landscape settings has progressed across a long trajectory in its consideration of urban and rural adaptations in Etruria. Such studies, while providing valuable details regarding social organization, have not considered the unique aural nature of the landscape, particularly with respect to funerary settings. Nowhere is this more evident than with painted chambered tombs. Our understanding of Etruscan painted tombs is still largely guided by analytic studies of tomb paintings, epigraphic sources, and typologies. Thus, the bilateral relationship between each tomb’s landscape setting and habitation contexts has been explored from a solely visual perspective, rather than from a multisensory perspective, and consequently, ritual performed in and around the tomb space remains unclear. A further understanding of perceptual constructs involving aural information offers a new way forward in confronting these realities. This article utilizes acoustic modeling tools to illustrate the potential range of audibility between the Necropoli dei Monterozzi in Tarquinia and various locations in the landscape. Acoustic and spatial data collected in 2019 inside a series of painted tombs in the Calvario area of the Necropoli dei Monterozzi in Tarquinia provides further information regarding the painted tomb’s landscape setting and its environs. The preliminary study suggests that aural information can greatly enhance our understanding of funerary practices in Tarquinia, particularly with respect to how habitation areas in Tarquinia may have engaged with funerary landscapes.

Geometric Morphometrics Reveal Shape Differences in the Toes of Urban Lizards.

SynopsisUrbanization, despite its destructive effects on natural habitats, offers species an opportunity to colonize novel niches. Previous research found that urban Anolis lizards in Puerto Rico had increased adhesive toepad area and more ventral toepad scales, traits that are likely adaptive and genetically based. We further investigated these phenotypic changes using geometric morphometrics to measure differences in toe shape, toepad shape, and lamellar morphology. Our results indicate that the increased toepad area of urban Anolis cristatellus lizards in Puerto Rico is not simply an isometric increase in toe size. Toes of urban populations exhibit multiple disproportional changes compared to forest lizards, with a larger proportion of the toe length covered in adhesive toepad. In addition, the toepads of urban lizards increase more in length than width. Lastly, lizards in urban populations exhibit both increased number of lamellae as well as increased spacing between individual lamellae. We also observed regional variation, with urban specimens having significantly more disparity, suggesting similar processes of urban adaptation are likely happening in parallel across the island, yet with region-specific idiosyncrasies, possibly generating more variation in toepad morphology across urban specimens as compared to forest specimens. Considering the use of geometric morphometrics, we found that specimen preparation, specifically how flat and straight toes are during imaging, to be an important factor affecting our data, more so than specimen size or any other meaningful morphological variation. In addition, we found that landmark and semilandmark data can be used to directly estimate toepad area, offering the opportunity to streamline future studies. In conclusion, our results highlight the value of considering toepad morphology in more detail beyond adhesive pad area or number of lamellae. Geometric morphometrics tools may be employed to elucidate subtle differences in shape to better allow researchers to connect changes in morphology to ecology and adhesive performance.

Delimitation of Urban Hot Spots and Rural Cold Air Formation Areas for Nocturnal Ventilation Studies Using Urban Climate Simulations

Due to global warming, the conservation or enhancement of urban ventilation during synoptically calm and hot weather conditions is receiving increasing attention in climate resilient urban and regional planning. The transport of cool air from rural surroundings into the city by local winds during nighttime is important for the alleviation of the urban heat island intensity and heat load in particular. A simple statistical method, which objectively identifies urban thermal hot spots and areas of rural cold air formation from thermodynamic urban climate model simulations is described and applied to Aschaffenburg, a medium-sized town located in hilly terrain in south-central Germany. The delimitated hot spots and nocturnal cold air formation areas are influenced by local land cover, and also by the surrounding landscape heterogeneity, surface energy exchange and atmospheric mixing processes. The results illustrate limitations of hot spot or cool spot estimation methods based purely on the analysis of classified land cover data. Nocturnal backward airflow trajectories from thermal hot spots in the city and forward trajectories from rural areas with substantial cold air formation are calculated to determine which cold air formation areas are contributing to ventilation and advective cooling of thermal hot spots. It is found that nocturnal ventilation mechanisms are not bound to municipal boundaries, which highlights the need for regional cooperation in urban climate adaptation. The described method provides guidance to urban and regional planners in order to protect important cold air formation areas, e.g., from urban sprawl, and it can be applied to study impacts of planning scenarios. Options for improvement or extension of the method are discussed.

Using Google Street View photographs to assess long-term outdoor thermal perception and thermal comfort in the urban environment during heatwaves

The outdoor thermal comfort of urban residents is negatively affected by heatwaves that are becoming more frequent and severe with the ongoing climate crisis. As such, the assessment of outdoor perception and comfort during heatwaves has become an important ingredient of successful urban adaptation strategies. However, systematic assessment of long-term thermal perception across a large number of places and large populations of people is difficult. In this study, we consider an approach to the assessment of long-term thermal perception that combines features of currently used approaches (i.e., use of rating scales of thermal perception, use of surveys, and the use of photographs representing places) and we provide some preliminary validation of this approach. Specifically, across three studies conducted in two Czech cities, we show that long-term thermal perceptions for a large sample of 1,856 urban places can be elicited in a large sample of city residents (total N = 1,812) using rating scales in off-site surveys complemented with visual representations of the target locations. In Studies 1 and 2, we partially validate this approach by showing that such long-term thermal perceptions can be traced back to average surface temperature, sky-view factor, and the presence of blue and green infrastructure, all factors that the literature relates to thermal perception. Moreover, we show evidence that observers can reliably glean these properties from the visual representation of places. In Study 3, we provide additional evidence of the predictive validity of such long-term thermal perceptions by showing that they predict place-related activities (waiting and walking) and the place preference of other people more than one year later. Thus, this approach to the measurement of long-term thermal perception related to heatwaves can be a useful addition to currently used approaches.

Institutionalisation of urban climate adaptation: three municipal experiences in Spain

Comparative studies of urban adaptation have evaluated the progress, means and scope of adaptation planning. Practice on the ground shows that the local politics of climate adaptation advance through various strategies to align different interests and spheres of action or disrupt mainstream practices, which translates into a wide range of interventions. This paper focuses on understanding the dynamics and tools that enable the institutionalisation of adaptation practices in local governments,i.e. the means through which adaptation practices, beyond plans and policies, are embedded in the routines of urban governance. It presents a framework to analyse the institutionalisation of adaptation that maps stages and tools with the potential to deliver adaptation in urban areas. Adaptation is framed as a learning process involving overlapping phases of recognition (of needs, capacities and actors), groundwork (knowledge generation) and action on the ground (change). The framework compares three Spanish local government initiatives (Bilbao, Barcelona and Madrid). The analysis shows that adaptation can be effectively incorporated into standard rules, norms and practices using combinations of tools and spatial and temporal scales. The coupled stages of recognition, groundwork and action highlight the importance of long-term learning processes to engage with the temporal dimensions of adaptation governance. <em><strong>Policy relevance</strong></em> Addressing the adaptation gap in urban areas requires the institutionalisation of climate adaptation as a routine part of decision-making. Institutionalisation refers to actions whereby adaptation to climate change is mainstreamed in urban practices, rules and norms, enabling the long-term impact of adaptation actions beyond the confines of adaptation plans. Using institutionalisation, adaptation goals can be integrated into urban governance and facilitate social learning. This paper examines the processes of implementation of adaptation and how they interact with and are shaped by existing contexts of infrastructure and institutions. Adaptation requires a gradual process of institutional change whereby adaptation becomes ‘institutionalised’ in municipal policy. Coupled phases of recognition, groundwork and action along a temporal scale are needed to deliver adaptation and advance learning and effective action. Three cases of urban adaptation in Spain demonstrate the various processes whereby institutionalisation occurs.

Assessing the recreational value of small-scale nature-based solutions when planning urban flood adaptation

Assessing the recreational value of small-scale nature-based solutions when planning urban flood adaptation

Review of Urban Flood Resilience: Insights from Scientometric and Systematic Analysis.

In recent decades, climate change is exacerbating meteorological disasters around the world, causing more serious urban flood disaster losses. Many solutions in related research have been proposed to enhance urban adaptation to climate change, including urban flooding simulations, risk reduction and urban flood-resistance capacity. In this paper we provide a thorough review of urban flood-resilience using scientometric and systematic analysis. Using Cite Space and VOS viewer, we conducted a scientometric analysis to quantitively analyze related papers from the Web of Science Core Collection from 1999 to 2021 with urban flood resilience as the keyword. We systematically summarize the relationship of urban flood resilience, including co-citation analysis of keywords, authors, research institutions, countries, and research trends. The scientometric results show that four stages can be distinguished to indicate the evolution of different keywords in urban flood management from 1999, and urban flood resilience has become a research hotspot with a significant increase globally since 2015. The research methods and progress of urban flood resilience in these four related fields are systematically analyzed, including climate change, urban planning, urban system adaptation and urban flood-simulation models. Climate change has been of high interest in urban flood-resilience research. Urban planning and the adaptation of urban systems differ in terms of human involvement and local policies, while more dynamic factors need to be jointly described. Models are mostly evaluated with indicators, and comprehensive resilience studies based on traditional models are needed for multi-level and higher performance models. Consequently, more studies about urban flood resilience based on local policies and dynamics within global urban areas combined with fine simulation are needed in the future, improving the concept of resilience as applied to urban flood-risk-management and assessment.

Coping with novelty across an urban mosaic: Provisioning latency increases closer to roads and is associated with species-specific reproductive success in two urban adapters

Most research on urban avian ecology has focused on population- and community-level phenomena, whereas fewer studies have examined how urbanization affects individual behavioral responses to a sudden and novel stimulus, and how those translate to fitness. We measured between-individual variation in provisioning latency in two urban adapters - great tits and blue tits - in response to an infrared camera installed in the nestbox, encountered when offspring in the nest were at the peak of food demand (9–10-days old). For each nestbox, we quantified urbanization as intensity in human activity, distance to road and proportion of impervious surface area. In both species, provisioning latency increased closer to roads. Moreover, increased provisioning latency when exposed to a novel object was associated with higher reproductive success in great tits whose nestboxes were surrounded by high amounts of impervious surface. In contrast, increased provisioning latency was consistently associated with lower reproductive success in blue tits. Our results suggest that provisioning latency changes in relation to the environment surrounding the nest, and may be context- and species-specific when exposed to a novel stimulus, such as a novel object in the nest. To better understand the role of initial behavioral responses towards novelty across an individual's lifetime and, ultimately, its impact on fitness in the urban mosaic, further research explicitly testing different behavioral responses across the entire breeding cycle in wild model systems is needed.

Exploring urban growth–climate change–flood risk nexus in fast growing cities

This study looks at the nexus between urban growth, climate change, and flood risk in Doha, Qatar, a hot-spot, climate change region that has experienced unprecedented urban growth during the last four decades. To this end, this study overviews the main stages of Doha’s urban growth and influencing climatic factors during this period. A physically-based hydrological model was then built to simulate surface runoff and quantify flood risk. Finally, the Pearson correlation was used to verify the potential nexus between flood risk, climate change, and urban growth. Surveying showed that, between 1984 and 2020, urban areas grew by 777%, and bare lands decreased by 54.7%. In addition, Doha witnessed various climatic changes with a notable increase in air temperature (+ 8.7%), a decrease in surface wind speed (− 19.5%), and a decrease in potential evapotranspiration losses (− 33.5%). Growth in urban areas and the perturbation of climatic parameters caused runoff to increase by 422%, suggesting that urban growth contributed more than climatic parameters. Pearson correlation coefficient between flood risk and urban growth was strong (0.83) and significant at p < 0.05. Flood risk has a strong significant positive (negative) correlation with air temperature (wind speed) and a moderate positive (negative) correlation with precipitation (potential evapotranspiration). These results pave the way to integrate flood risk reduction measures in local urban development and climate change adaptation plans.

A policy content analysis for evaluating urban adaptation justice in İstanbul

Climate change is disproportionately affecting vulnerable communities, increasing existing risks and leading to further global inequalities. Drawing on the concept of urban adaptation justice, we evaluated the inclusion of vulnerable communities in the climate change adaptation planning process of İstanbul, a European coastal megacity with considerable vulnerability to climate change. For this, a policy content analysis structured around four criteria: (i) participation, (ii) capacity enhancement, (iii) governance, and (iv) justice integration into spatial planning, was carried out and supplemented by local expert consultations. Our findings indicate that while the objective of incorporating some aspects of justice in adaptation planning was recognized, there was a distinct lack of specific actions or evaluation tools. The expert consultations largely confirmed these findings, which were then connected to the socio-historical and political context of İstanbul and the wider Turkish region. Key conclusions include the failure of current adaptation policies to adequately consider vulnerabilities arising from a combination of urban marginalization interacting with neoliberal authoritarianism. We identify the need for understanding and integrating equitable climate change adaptation as a key dimension of urban decision-making for future policy-relevant research and practice.

Green building: A comprehensive solution to urban heat

Many cities are facing urban heat problems, the combined effect of heatwaves under global climate change, and local warming associated with urbanization, resulting in severe environmental, economic, social, and health impacts. It is urgent to address urban heat problems. Buildings are an important cause of urban heat, while buildings are favorable spaces to deal with urban heat problems through built environment decarbonization and the implementation of cooling strategies. Green building (GB) which has been recognized as an innovative philosophy and practice in the building sector, is proposed to address urban heat challenges. However, existing studies have offered a limited understanding of GB-based urban heat mitigation and adaptation (UHMA). Therefore, this study aims to examine how GBs can contribute to UHMA. In particular, this study analyses the contribution of buildings to urban heat problems in aspects of carbon emissions and the extensive modifications towards artificial landscapes, and discusses the possible impacts caused by urban heat problems. Afterwards, this study develops the framework of GB’s responses to urban heat in global warming mitigation, local warming mitigation, and urban heat adaptation. Based on this, such responses are analyzed in aspects of site planning, outdoor environments, transportation, building design, energy efficiency, water efficiency, material efficiency, indoor environmental quality, operation management, construction, and maintenance following the whole life cycle perspective. This paper helps understand how GB techniques contribute to UHMA and provides a reference to the revision of the GB assessment system for addressing urban heat problems.

Vulnerability and activism in urban climate politics: An actor-centered approach to transformational adaptation in Malmö (Sweden)

Climate change adaptation is rising on the agenda of cities. However, critics have argued that urban adaptation efforts largely focus on preserving economic growth while overlooking the root causes of unequal vulnerability to climate impacts, giving rise to climate injustices. In response, literature on transformational adaptation has politicized these issues but it has remained largely conceptual, particularly in relation to the question of which actors can define and advance transformative approaches. Furthermore, existing empirical studies focus on positive cases while ignoring why these issues more commonly are not politicized. In this article, we add empirical rigour to these debates through an investigation into Malmö's climate politics. We analyse what enables or inhibits the role of three political outsiders – disadvantaged communities, climate movements and social justice activists – in politicizing urban climate adaptation. We find that, while the most vulnerable social groups struggle with climatic impacts and experience difficulties in politicizing these issues, climate movements remain focused on climate mitigation and largely ignore local adaptation. In turn, we highlight the untapped capacity of social justice activism to act as social infrastructure for adaptation. Our findings suggest that alliances between the victims of adaptation injustices and local activist groups could support the politicization of those grievances by responding to emerging needs and by building policy-oriented pressure for transformational adaptation. However, we identify several factors that limit this potential, thereby contributing to an understanding of why social movements sometimes do not live up to their transformational potential.

The inequality labor loss risk from future urban warming and adaptation strategies

Heat-induced labor loss is a major economic cost related to climate change. Here, we use hourly heat stress data modeled with a regional climate model to investigate the heat-induced labor loss in 231 Chinese cities. Results indicate that future urban heat stress is projected to cause an increase in labor losses exceeding 0.20% of the total account gross domestic product (GDP) per year by the 2050s relative to the 2010s. In this process, certain lower-paid sectors could be disproportionately impacted. The implementation of various urban adaptation strategies could offset 10% of the additional economic loss per year and help reduce the inequality-related impact on lower-paid sectors. So future urban warming can not only damage cities as a whole but can also contribute to income inequality. The implication of adaptation strategies should be considered in regard to not only cooling requirements but also environmental justice.

A Review of Decision Making Under Deep Uncertainty Applications Using Green Infrastructure for Flood Management

AbstractDecision making under deep uncertainty (DMDU) approaches are well‐suited for making decisions about infrastructure to manage flooding exacerbated by climate change. One important system for climate resilience and flood management is green infrastructure, which refers to a network of natural and semi‐engineered areas that provides ecosystem functions. Green infrastructure is often characterized as a low‐regret strategy with multiple co‐benefits under uncertainty. These attributes enable green infrastructure to be an important adaptation strategy under DMDU frameworks for flood management. However, DMDU analyses that include green infrastructure are still relatively limited, perhaps due to computational or modeling complexity and other barriers. This paper identifies and reviews publications in the flood management literature that use DMDU frameworks and refer to green infrastructure adaptation strategies, in order to identify trends and inform future research. The reviewed publications are categorized according to a variety of performance metrics, climate change scenarios, DMDU metrics, and hydrologic modeling techniques, and represent several adaptation strategies applied to case studies on five continents using a range of data sources and assumptions. This paper highlights a number of solutions that can be employed to facilitate additional research at the intersection of these fields. Primary among these is the transparent documentation and use of open source models, methods, and data. Future research should also focus on communication among different stakeholders, particularly in ensuring definitions, assumptions, and data requirements are clear. These partnerships can facilitate effective application of robust strategies such as green infrastructure for urban adaptation to the effects of climate change.