Ural Family Research Articles

The impact of information communication technology adoption on rural labourers’ off-farm employment: an analysis based on China family panel studies

ABSTRACTRural family income growth in China depends significantly on off-farm employment. Using data from the China Family Panel Studies, this research examines the influence of information and communication technology (ICT) on off-farm employment of rural workers and the underlying mechanism. We find that ICT has a positive impact on promoting off-farm employment among rural workers. Furthermore, the analysis suggests that ICT affects off-farm employment of rural workers by enhancing their risk preferences. Specifically, rural workers with higher risk preferences are more likely to engage in off-farm employment. In addition, the positive impact of ICT on off-farm employment is more pronounced among rural workers with stronger learning abilities, active learning habits, and higher learning frequency and social frequency of Internet use. This study provides valuable insights on how to improve off-farm employment opportunities for rural workers, thereby reducing the income gap between urban and rural areas.

Материалы Всесоюзной переписи населения 1959 г. как источник по истории городской семьи

Using census materials for studying social history of Russia in the 20th century has serious restrictions determined by the census form and by selective publication of the obtained results. Using census forms themselves, fragmentary preserved in local archives, partially solves this problem. The researcher has to turn to the census materials for studying some topics, which are not directly reflected in the census forms, due to limited social statistics on the Soviet society. The article is to clarify the possibility of using primary materials of the 1959 census, stored in the fond of the Regional Statistical Office from the State Archive of the Sverdlovsk Region, alongside with the published data, for studying urban family in Sverdlovsk. The study of the Russian urban family in the second half of the 20th century is important for assessing the consequences of demographic transition of the 1930s – 1980s and the degree of population structure deformation following the Great Patriotic War. Studying the Ural family is significant, as urbanization processes in the region during the said period proceeded extremely intensively. To systematize the information on the census forms, a database “Family of the city of Sverdlovsk, 1959” has been created, combining principles of individual and family registration. The database includes information from 1,200 forms for the Oktyabrsky district. Nearly 17 000 apartment census forms for other urban settlements of the region fall outside the scope of this analysis. Comparison with published data proves that the sample is representative in its most significant indicators. Significant deviations are recorded in the social composition of the population, reflecting specifics of a central district of a large city (dominance of employees, significant number of single-parent families, presumably recent migrants). Among other things, it has been established that most commonly families consisted of two and three persons; in a significant number of cases, the households were headed by young women. The obtained information permits to characterize the Sverdlovsk urban family in terms of the so-called second demographic transition, which significantly influenced family size, distribution of intra-familial roles, and strategies of matrimonial behavior. Given the undoubted scientific value of the primary census materials, discovery of other similar documentary complexes in the Russian archives should be an important direction of research.

Craniological sources on the problem of ethnogenesis of the Narym Selkups

The Narym Selkups are an indigenous population of the Middle Ob River region speaking various dialects of the Selkup language related to the South-Samodian branch of the Ural language family. In the course of the study of Medieval and relatively recent burial grounds in the territory of the Narym Ob area of Tomsk Oblast, considerable amount of craniological material has been collected, which constitutes an important historical source for solving general problems of their origins. According to the archaeological and ethnographic materials, the Medieval burials were left by direct ascendants of modern Narym Selkups, whereas the materials from the later burial grounds are directly associated with their specific local-dialect groups. This paper is aimed to introduce into scien-tific discourse virtually all craniological materials known today from the burial grounds left by the Narym Selkups, and, on the basis of the results of group cross-correlation, to identify trends of the territorial variability of the whole community. Significant increase of new finds from the vast territory of the Middle Ob region, population-driven approach to the data analysis and development of the craniometric technique warranted re-grouping of the finds by the territorial principle and their repeated measurement and analysis. In view of the current problem, all cranio-logical materials were grouped into ten sampling series, five of which are published for the first time (the burial ground of Ostyatskaya Gora and four combined craniological series from the burial grounds of Lower Chulym, Narym Ob, Upper Ket, and the Tym and Vasyugan rivers). Analysis of the variability of the series from the Narym Ob region in chronological and geographical bands showed their weak variability in space and time. Therefore, prior to the Russian colonization of Siberia, this region of the Middle Ob area was not invaded by considerably large groups of people of different anthropological appearance. All studied craniological series were samples from the single unity. Although the territorial variability of the anthropological features within the groups of the Narym Selkups is not large, in some cases an influence of territorially closest neighbours on the anthropological structures of particular Selkup populations can be discerned. It appeared that the southern groups exhibit resemblance with their territorially closest Turkic populations of the Chulym and Lower Tom regions, while in the composition of other Narym groups, there have been identified an admixture of the component genetically related to the Turkic populations of the Western-Siberian forest-steppe — Barabino and Tobol-Irtysh Tatars, and, although being very weak, an influence of the Ob Ugric populations can be discerned.

Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates using Spoligotyping method in Kurdistan province, iran

Aims and objectives: Mycobacterium tuberculosis (M. tuberculosis) is one of the major threatening infectious diseases and public health in the world. Spoligotyping is a method for r genotyping assay and molecular epidemiology of M. tuberculosis strains. The aim of this study was to determine the molecular epidemiology of M. tuberculosis by spoligotype isolated from patients with tuberculosis at Kurdistan province, Iran. Methods: a total of 47 M. tuberculosis isolates were collected from TB patient at Kurdistan province, Iran. All sample cultures on Lowenstein-Jensen medium and were incubated at 37 °C and were kept for 8 weeks. Bacterial isolates were identified as M. tuberculosis using standard biochemical tests. Multi-drug resistance (MDR) were determined by using proportional method. Spoligotyping was performed. Results: Spoligotyping of 47 strains created 8 patterns. Out of 47 samples, 23 (48.94%) were new Spoligotype International Type (SIT). In preexisting shared pattern STI 2669 were highest degree 23.40% that belong to Ural family of M. tuberculosis spoligotypes. Frequency of MDR were 6.38%. Resistance to Isoniazid and Rifampin were 14.89% and 10.64%, respectively. Conclusion: In overall, half of isolated strains from patients showed new patterns that, indicated the dynamic transmission of tuberculosis. Therefore, highlights dominance of differ pattern of tuberculosis distribution in west Iran. The low frequency of resistance is very interested.

ТЕРМИНЫ РОДСТВА, ОТРАЖАЮЩИЕ ДРЕВНЮЮ КУЛЬТУРУ ТУНДРЕННЫХ ЮКАГИРОВ

The article presents the main results of the structural, semantic, and comparative-contrastive analysis of the kinship terms of the tundra and forest dialects of the Yukagir language with the aim of identifying the features of the most ancient composition of the proto-Yukagir family of languages. The objects of etymologization - the kinship terms эчиэ ‘father’, ииwаа ‘mother’- are considered as the original kinship terms of the tundra dialect of the Yukagir language for the first time. The nature of borrowing the Tungus kinship terms denoting father and mother is determined presumably. The semantic definition is given to the terms чумуочэ ‘father’s elder brother’, өчидиэ ‘uncle (father’s younger brother)’, чамийаа ‘grandmother (mother’s elder sister)’, йаадиэ ‘aunt (mother’s younger sister)’, the names of the closest relatives of father’s and mother’s generations. The article may be of interest to the researchers specializing in the Ural family of languages, since the Yukagir language belongs to the group of the Finno-Ugric and Samoyed languages.

New epidemic cluster of pre-extensively drug resistant isolates of Mycobacterium tuberculosis Ural family emerging in Eastern Europe

BackgroundUral genetic family is a part of the Euro-American lineage of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and is endemic in Northern Eurasia (former Soviet Union [FSU]). These strains were long described as drug susceptible and of low virulence, but recent studies reported an increasing circulation of the multidrug-resistant (MDR) and extensively drug-resistant (XDR) Ural strains. Here, we analyzed all publicly available whole genome sequence data of Ural genotype isolates, in order to elucidate their phylogenomic diversity with a special focus on MDR and potentially epidemic clones.ResultsA total of 149 M. tuberculosis genomes of Ural isolates from FSU countries were mined from the GMTV database and TB-ARC project. We identified 6002 variable amino acid positions that were assessed for functional significance and used to build ML, NJ trees and for Bayesian TMRCA estimation. Three robust monophyletic clades were identified: Clade A (31 isolates from Russia, Belarus, Moldova), Clade B (52 isolates from Russia), and Clade C (37 isolates from Moldova, 2 from Belarus). Clade C was significantly associated with XDR or pre-XDR status compared to the pooled Clades A and B (33/39 versus 5/83, P < 0.0001). Time of origin was estimated for Clade A at 77.7–137 years ago and for Clade B at 56.3–99.2 years ago compared to the significantly more recent origin for Clade C. in silico spoligotyping identified signatures specific of the Clade A (spoligotype SIT35), and Clades B and C (both SIT262).ConclusionsA genetically compact and evolutionarily young Ural Clade C, likely originated after collapse of the Soviet Union, and reached epidemic proportions in Moldova in the last 20 years. This epidemic pre-XDR clone (mostly rifampin, isoniazid and kanamycin resistant) is characterized by a specific combination of mutations: KatG Ser315Thr, fabG1 -15C > T, RpoB Ser450Leu, RpsL Lys88Arg, eis -12G > A and EmbB Ser297Ala/T > G. Its further dissemination may occur towards both Russia and European Union and should be taken into consideration by health authorities. The identified spoligotyping signatures can serve for rapid preliminary detection and surveillance of the more hazardous pre-XDR associated strains of the Ural family, both in populations from countries of their endemic circulation and migrant communities.

MOLECULAR EPIDEMIOLOGY OF TUBERCULOSIS IN THE KALININGRAD REGION OF RUSSIA: 10 YEARS AFTER

In the Kaliningrad region, the incidence of tuberculosis (TB) has declined significantly over the past decade (from 134/100 000 in 2006 to 50.6/100 000 in 2015), but still exceeds the average for the North-West Russia (40.7/100 000). In view of the increase in the proportion of primary multidrug resistance (MDR) of the causative agent from 23.9% in 2010 to 30.5% in 2015, the aim of this study was to analyze the current Mycobacterium tuberculosis population structure in the Kaliningrad region and to evaluate its spatial-temporal trends. The 73 M. tuberculosis isolates from patients with pulmonary TB newly diagnosed in 2015 were studied. Drug resistance (DR) was detected in 46 (63.0%) M. tuberculosis strains; of these, 32 (43.8%) were multidrug-resistant (MDR). The 46 (63.0%) of 73 M. tuberculosis strains were of the Beijing genotype with 19.2% (14 out of 73) share of the B0/W148 cluster. Spoligotyping of 27 non-Beijing M. tuberculosis strains made it possible to identify 15 spoligotypes of 5 genetic families — T, LAM, Ural, S, X. About half (16; 51.6%) of non-Beijing strains were represented by spoligotypes — SIT42, SIT53, SIT262, and SIT444. In a heterogeneous group T, mostly drugsusceptible strains of spoligotype SIT53 were prevailing. More than half (55.6%) of the LAM genotype strains exhibited DR. The Ural family was small (5.5%) and included strains of well-known in Russia M. tuberculosis spoligotypes SIT35 and SIT262, and one new, not found previously. MDR was statistically significantly associated with the Beijing genotype: 56.5% versus 25.9% in strains of other genotypes (in total) (P = 0.0134). Moreover, all 14 strains of epidemiologically and clinically significant B0/W148 cluster were MDR. The proportion of MDR strains of the Beijing genotype did not change significantly: in 2006 it was 61.3%, in 2015 — 56.5% (P = 0.6773). However, the spectrum of drug resistance to first-line anti-TB drugs expanded. If previously the majority (78.9%) of MDR strains additionally exhibited resistance to streptomycin only, in present study 72.0% of MDR strains were resistant to streptomycin, ethambutol, and pyrazinamide. The proportion of MDR strains of non-Beijing genotypes was 25.9%, a significantly higher than the similar indicators in 2006 — 2.2% (P = 0.0124). A relatively smaller proportion of strains of the Beijing genotype (50%) was found in TB patients from the shores of the Baltic Sea, a territory with a relatively more favorable socio-economic situation and a higher standard of living. Thus, the current epidemiological situation of TB in the Kaliningrad region is crucially determined by the growing circulation of MDR Beijing family strains, as well as a significant increase in the proportion of MDR strains of other genotypes.

Major genotype families and epidemic clones of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in Omsk region, Western Siberia, Russia, marked by a high burden of tuberculosis-HIV coinfection

This population-based study characterized Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from HIV-positive and HIV-negative tuberculosis (TB) patients in the Omsk region in Western Siberia, Russia. We sought to gain insight into the major genotype families and epidemic and endemic clones of M. tuberculosis in the area with a high burden and adverse trend of TB/HIV coinfection. The study collection included M. tuberculosis isolates from 207 newly-diagnosed patients with pulmonary TB; 55 (26.5%) of patients were HIV-infected. The M. tuberculosis isolates were subjected to drug susceptibility testing and molecular typing based on spoligotyping and analysis of the robust genotype and cluster-specific markers. Patients with disseminated TB disease were more prevalent in the HIV-positive (34.5%) than in the HIV-negative group (4.6%) (P < .001). The Beijing genotype was predominant (62.3% of isolates), and its major subtypes were 94-32-cluster (Central Asian/Russian strain, n = 80) and B0/W148-cluster (successful Russian strain, n = 28). The main non-Beijing families were represented by Latin-American Mediterranean (14.5%), T family (11.1%), Ural (5.8%), and Haarlem (3.9%). Under multivariate logistic regression analysis, MDR was associated with Beijing genotype and not associated with HIV coinfection status (P < .001). Beijing genotype isolates were found more frequently in TB/HIV patients than in TB HIV-negative patients (74.5% versus 57.9%, respectively; P = .031). The non-Beijing genotypes were mainly drug susceptible except for the drug-resistant Ural SIT262 isolates. To summarize, the alarming situation in the Omsk region in Siberia regarding TB/HIV coinfection is seriously influenced by the active circulation of M. tuberculosis isolates of MDR-associated Beijing genotype. Among the non-Beijing families, emergence of the drug-resistant Ural family strains of spoligotype SIT262 warrants attention.

Molecular characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from Tehran, Iran by restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis and spoligotyping.

INTRODUCTION Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis (MTB) isolates by DNA fingerprinting has contributed to tuberculosis (TB) control. The aim of this study was to determine the genetic diversity of MTB isolates from Tehran province in Iran. METHODS MTB isolates from 60 Iranian and 10 Afghan TB patients were fingerprinted by standard IS6110-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) analysis and spoligotyping. RESULTS The copy number of IS6110 ranged from 10-24 per isolate. The isolates were classified into 22 clusters showing ≥ 80% similarity by RFLP analysis. Fourteen multidrug-resistant (MDR) isolates were grouped into 4 IS6110-RFLP clusters, with 10 isolates [71% (95% CI: 45-89%)] in 1 cluster, suggesting a possible epidemiological linkage. Eighteen Iranian isolates showed ≥ 80% similarity with Afghan isolates. There were no strains with identical fingerprints. Spoligotyping of 70 isolates produced 23 distinct patterns. Sixty (85.7%) isolates were grouped into 13 clusters, while the remaining 10 isolates (14.2%) were not clustered. Ural (formerly Haarlem4) (n = 22, 31.4%) was the most common family followed by Central Asian strain (CAS) (n = 18, 25.7%) and T (n = 9, 12.8%) families. Only 1strain was characterized as having the Beijing genotype. Among 60 Iranian and 10 Afghan MTB isolates, 25% (95% CI: 16-37) and 70% (95% CI: 39-89) were categorized as Ural lineage, respectively. CONCLUSIONS A higher prevalence of Ural family MTB isolates among Afghan patients than among Iranian patients suggests the possible transmission of this lineage following the immigration of Afghans to Iran.

Mycobacterium tuberculosis phylogeography in the context of human migration and pathogen's pathobiology: Insights from Beijing and Ural families

Here, I review the population structure and phylogeography of the two contrasting families of Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Beijing and Ural, in the context of strain pathobiology and human history and migration. Proprietary database (12-loci MIRU-VNTR profiles of 3067 Beijing genotype isolates) was subjected to phylogenetic and statistical analysis. The highest rate (90%) and diversity (HGI 0.80-0.95) of the Beijing genotype in North China suggest it to be its area of origin. Under VNTR-based MDS analysis the interpopulation genetic distances correlated with geography over uninterrupted landmasses. In contrast, large water distances together with long time generated remarkable outliers. Weak and less expected affinities of the distant M. tuberculosis populations may reflect hidden epidemiological links due to unknown migration. Association with drug-resistance or increased virulence/transmissibility along with particular human migration flows shape global dissemination of some Beijing clones. The paucity of data on the Ural genotype prevents from high-resolution analysis that was mainly based on the available spoligotyping data. The North/East Pontic area marked with the highest prevalence of the Ural family may have been the area of its origin and primary dispersal in Eurasia. Ural strains are not marked by increased pathogenic capacities, increased transmissibility and association with drug resistance (but most recent reports describe an alarming increase of MDR Ural strains in some parts of eastern Europe and northwestern Russia). Large-scale SNP or WGS population-based studies targeting strains from indigenous populations and, eventually, analysis of ancient DNA will better test these hypotheses. Host genetics factors likely play the most prominent role in differential dissemination of particular M. tuberculosis genotypes.

Genotyping and drug susceptibility testing of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from Iran

Aims and objectivesTuberculosis (TB) continues to be an important public health problem in the world. Genotyping of Mycobacterium tuberculosis MTB isolates will contribute to understanding and controlling the spread of the strains. This study aimed to determine the epidemiology of tuberculosis in Iran and to analyze the relationship between bacterial genotype and drug resistance. MethodsSpoligotyping and proportion method of drug susceptibility testing (DST) were used to determine genetic diversity and drug susceptibility of 291 MTB isolates respectively. ResultsSpoligotyping produced 75 distinct patterns. 251 isolates (86.2%) were grouped in 35 clusters, while the remaining isolates showed a unique pattern. Ural (34.3%), Central Asian strain (CAS) (24%), T (18.2%), MANU2 (7.5%) and Latin American-Mediterranean (LAM) (6.1%) were found to be five common lineages of the studied population. The five largest clusters were Ural/SIT127 (15.8%), CAS1/SIT26 (9.2%), T1/SIT53 (6.1%), T1/SIT284 (5.4%) and CAS1/SIT25 (4.4%). According to spoligotyping data, 74.2% of infections were attributed to recent transmission. About 5% of isolates had multi-drug resistance (MDR) which was significantly associated with the Beijing genotype. Despite the high prevalence, the Ural family was not characterized with MDR. ConclusionsThe present study highlights dominance of Ural, CAS and T families in Iran. The high rate of clustering obtained by this method suggests that recent transmission probably contributes more to TB infections rather than reactivation in this area. Bio-geographical specificity of CAS and T families to border provinces of Iran including Sistan-Baluchestan and Kermanshah, respectively, suggested that these family strains might be transmitted from these regions to other provinces of the country.

Molecular structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis population in Russia and its interaction with neighboring countries

BackgroundThe tuberculosis (TB) situation in Russia is aggravated by the emergence and the spread of multidrug-resistant strains, HIV co-infection and drawbacks in the health control system. The Mycobacterium tuberculosis population structure in Russia has been defined by the remarkable mass migration in the 20th century, the variable genetic background of different ethnic groups inhabiting Russia, and by the pathobiology of circulating strains. Here, I will review the phylogeography and pathobiology of: (i) the dominating Beijing family; (ii) the Latin-American Mediterranean (LAM) family, the second largest in Russia and MDR-associated in some regions; and (iii) the Ural family, endemic in Russia and thought to be less transmissible and drug resistant. Review and analysisM. tuberculosis variant Beijing В0/W148 is regarded as a successful clone of M. tuberculosis widespread in the former Soviet Union. However, a closer look reveals a peculiar clinal gradient of its geographic distribution; it peaks in Siberia and, to a lesser extent, in the European part of the former USSR. In contrast, its rate is sharply decreased in the Asian part of the former Soviet Union, and it is absent in the autochthonous populations elsewhere in the world. Two interdependent hypotheses will be put forward. First, B0/W148 likely originated in Siberia and its primary dispersal was driven by a massive population outflow from Siberia to European Russia in the period 1960–1980. Second, a historically recent phylogenetically demonstrated successful dissemination of the Beijing B0/W148 strain was triggered by an advent and wide use of the modern anti-TB drugs and was due to its remarkable capacity to acquire drug resistance.Robust phylogenetic markers were used to study the evolution of LAM and its major sublineages in Russia and its neighboring countries. A total of 250 M. tuberculosis isolates were assigned to LAM based on analysis of LAM-specific SNP in Rv3062 and Rv0129c. The family status was rectified for 121 isolates mis-assigned by spoligotyping to non-LAM families (T1 or T5-RUS1). The re-estimated LAM rate increased twofold in Russia and Kazakhstan and fourfold in Belarus. The majority (>90%) of LAM isolates from all three countries belonged to the LAM-RUS sublineage. In contrast, Ibero-American LAM RD-Rio sublineage was identified in only 7 Russian isolates. These findings and further analysis suggest a monophyletic origin of the LAM-RUS subfamily that is endemic in Russia. In contrast, rare LAM RD-Rio isolates were likely brought to Russia through occasional human contact.The analysis of the Ural family showed its highest prevalence in the North/East Pontic (Black Sea) area that may have been an area of its origin and primary dispersal. Ural family strains are not marked by increased pathogenic capacities, association with drug resistance (although there is a trend towards MDR Ural strains in the European part of the former USSR) or increased transmissibility. This reflects their basically low contagiosity which is why the Ural family is still moderately widespread in central Eurasia.Large-scale SNP or WGS population-based studies targeting strains from indigenous populations and, eventually, analysis of ancient DNA will better test these hypotheses. Host genetics factors likely play the most prominent role in the differential dissemination of particular M. tuberculosis genotypes.

Spoligotyping and drug resistance patterns of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates from five provinces of Iran

Tuberculosis (TB) persists as a public health problem in Iran. Characterization of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates circulating in this area will contribute to understand and control the spread of the strains. The aims of this study were to understand the genetic diversity and drug susceptibility of M. tuberculosis isolates circulating in Iran and to analyze the relationship between genotype and drug resistance. A total of 291 M. tuberculosis isolates collected from TB patients were genotyped by spoligotyping. Drug susceptibility testing was performed using proportion method. Spoligotyping resulted in 75 distinct patterns. 86.2% of isolates were grouped in 35 clusters while the remaining isolates were unique. Ural was found to be the most predominant lineage (34.3%) followed by Central Asian strain (CAS) (24%), T (18.2%), Manu2 (7.5%) and Latin American-Mediterranean (LAM) (6.1%). The five largest clusters were Ural/Spoligotype International Type (SIT)127 (15.8%), CAS1/SIT26 (9.2%), T1/SIT53 (6.1%), T1/SIT284 (5.4%), and CAS1/SIT25 (4.4%). About 5% of isolates had multidrug resistance (MDR) and 10% had other resistance. MDR was significantly associated with Beijing strains, but not with Ural family. This study highlights dominance of Ural, CAS, and T families in Iran. Biogeographic specificity of CAS and T families to border provinces of Iran including Sistan-Baluchestan and Kermanshah, respectively, suggested that this family strains might be transmitted from these regions to other provinces of the country.

The quiet and controversial: Ural family of Mycobacterium tuberculosis

The absence of lateral gene exchange is a characteristic feature defining the genome evolution and clonal population structure of Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Certain of its lineages have justly attracted more attention due to their global dissemination and/or remarkable pathogenic properties. In this critical review, I discuss the population structure and genetic geography of the less ‘popular’ but in some aspects no less noteworthy M. tuberculosis lineage, Ural family. Its specific signature was initially defined by single copy in MIRU26, and large (>6) copy number in MIRU10 loci, and by 43-spoligotyping as absence of signals 29–31 and 33–36. Here, I suggest to subdivide Ural strains with present and absent spoligosignal 2 into primary Ural-1 and secondary Ural-2 sublineages, respectively, while 1 copy in MIRU26 is specific of Ural-1. Furthermore, three copies were recently described in MIRU10 in Ural-1 strains which highlights a high diversity of this locus in Ural genotype. The data on the two Ural sublineages were extracted from SpolDB4 database and original publications in order to trace their distribution at global and within-country levels. Importantly, the rigorous reanalysis suggested the true rate of the Ural genotype in the Ural area in Russia to be only 7%. In contrast, the frequencies of the Ural sublineages peak elsewhere: in South Ukraine and Georgia/Abkhazia (Ural-1, up to 14–19%), and in southwestern Iran (Ural-2, up to 26%). However, as this name is used since 2005, it seems most parsimonious to continue its use even if misleading. The forest graph was built on the available spoligoprofiles of Ural family strains from Eurasia. It helped to suggest routes of their primary dispersal that are discussed in the context of the known human migrations also influenced by natural barriers. The north/east Pontic area may have been an area of origin and primary dispersal of the Ural (Ural-1) genotype in Eurasia, whereas political and natural borders may have influenced its subsequent dissemination throughout Central Asia. Studies of phenotypic properties in different models, comparison with host genetics give evidence that the Ural family strains are not associated with increased capacity to acquire drug resistance, pathogenicity or transmissibility. Instead since Ural family is rather moderately widespread in Eurasia beyond the hypothesized areas of origin, this situation may be a result of its low contagiosity as a consequence of long-term co-adaptation with human host. Future research should be focused on whole-genome sequencing in order to identify Ural-specific SNP and/or deletion, to resolve its phylogenetic and phylogeographic uncertainty and to elucidate biological features underlying its circulation and co-evolution with the human species.

Expression of Andromonoecy and Pollination of Tuberous Lomatiums (Umbelliferae)

Tuberous lomatiums (Lomatium, Umbelliferae) constitute a well-de- fined infrageneric group that is characterized by adaptation to a short, early spring growing season followed by a long summer drought. All tuberous lomatiums are andromonoecious and all exhibit 'a pattern of increasing ratios of hermaphroditic to staminate flowers in successively maturing inflorescences. Floral visitation by a variety of Diptera, Hymenoptera, and Coleoptera effects outcrossing and may also mediate geitonogamous selfing. Xenogamy is promoted by protogyny of hermaphroditic flowers, the arrangement of staminate and perfect flowers, and the sequence of floral maturation. Geitonogamy is favored by the morphology of the inflorescences, overlap of the staminate and pistillate stages of different flowers on the same indi- vidual, and the behavior of pollinators. Andromonoecy and high pollen production favor both xenogamy and geitonogamy. The floral features of tuberous lomatiums ensure relatively high levels of seed production even though abundance and activity of pollinators may be limited by harsh environmental conditions. The characteristic and comparatively uniform inflorescences of the Umbelliferae undoubtedly contributed to early recognition of this nat- ural family. Apparent uniformity may account, in part, for what until recently has been a paucity of investigations into the biological impor- tance of floral features of umbellifers. Studies by Bell (1971), Bell and Lindsey (1978), Brehm (1979), Cruden (1976), Cruden and Hermann- Parker (1977), Lindsey (1982), Lloyd (1973, 1980a, b), Schlessman (1978, 1980), and Webb (1979, 1980) have revealed considerable variation with