Memory Updating Research Articles

How does negative evidence impact argument strength during semantic category-based induction? An event-related potential study.

Negative evidence may influence category-based inductive reasoning, but the underlying time course of cognitive brain processing is unclear. This study adopted event-related potentials (ERPs) to investigate this effect by manipulating the category type (related vs. unrelated) and argument type (positive vs. negative) in a semantic category-based induction task. The behavioral results showed that, under unrelated conditions, a negative argument produced greater argument strength and shorter reaction time than a positive argument did. Meanwhile, the ERP results found a negative argument elicited larger P300, N400, and slow negative component amplitudes than a positive argument, which could possibly embody the expectation-related processing produced by memory updating, semantic integration, and the more complex inference-driven information integration and interpretation processes and cognitive load in hypothesis generation. This study provides novel evidence on the temporal course of how negative evidence influences argument strength during semantic category-based induction.

Can we learn from errors? Retrieval facilitates the correction of false memories for pragmatic inferences

Errorful learning suggests that, when perfect learning has not yet been attained, errors can enhance future learning if followed by corrective feedback. Research on memory updating has shown that after retrieval, memory becomes more malleable and prone to change. Thus, retrieval of a wrong answer might provide a good context for the incorporation of feedback. Here, we tested this hypothesis using sentences including pragmatic sentence implications, commonly used for the study of false memories. Across two experiments with young adults, we hypothesized that corrective feedback would be more efficient at reducing false memories if provided immediately after retrieval, when memory is more malleable than after being exposed to the material. Participants’ memory was assessed as a function of the type of learning task (Experiment 1: retrieval vs. restudy; and Experiment 2: active vs. passive recognition); and whether participants received corrective feedback or not. In both experiments, we observed that retrieval not only improved correct recall (replicating the testing effect) but also promoted the correction of false memories. Notably, corrective feedback was more effective when given after errors that were committed during retrieval rather than after restudy (Experiment 1) or after passive recognition (Experiment 2). Our results suggest that the benefits of retrieval go beyond the testing effect since it also facilitates false memories correction. Retrieval seems to enhance memory malleability, thus improving the incorporation of feedback, compared to the mere presentation of the information. Our results support the use of learning strategies that engage in active and explicit retrieval because, even if the retrieved information is wrong—when immediate feedback is provided—memory updating is promoted and errors are more likely to be corrected.

Genetic associations between executive functions and intelligence: A combined twin and adoption study.

Much debate has concerned the separability of executive function abilities and intelligence, with some evidence that the 2 constructs are genetically indistinguishable in children and adolescents but phenotypically and genetically distinct in older adolescents and adults. The current study leveraged data from twin and adoption studies to examine executive function's genetic structure in adulthood (M = 33.15 years, SD = 4.96) and its overlap with intelligence. 1,238 individuals (170 MZ twin pairs, 154 DZ twin pairs, 95 biological sibling pairs, 80 adoptive sibling pairs, and 240 unpaired individuals) completed 6 executive function tasks as well as the Weschler Adult Intelligence Scale-III as part of the Colorado Adoption/Twin study of Life span behavioral development and cognitive aging (CATSLife). Results replicated the unity/diversity model of executive function that distinguishes general executive function abilities (Common EF) from abilities specific to working memory updating (Updating-specific) and mental set shifting (Shifting-specific). In the final model, broad-sense heritability was high for Common EF (h² = .72), Updating-specific (h² = 1.0), and Shifting-specific (h² = .60) factors, as well as for full-scale intelligence (h² = .74). Intelligence was phenotypically and genetically correlated with Common EF (r = .49, broad-sense rg = .44) and Updating-specific (r = .60, rg = .69) abilities. This study represents the first executive function study to apply the adoption design. Leveraging the combined twin and adoptive design allowed us to estimate both additive and nonadditive genetic effects underlying these associations. These findings highlight the commonality and separability of executive function and intelligence. Common EF abilities are distinct from intelligence in adulthood, with intelligence also strongly associated with Updating-specific abilities. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).

Small-sample continual learning classification method with vaccine to update memory cells based on the artificial immune system

In this paper, a novel continual learning classification method (SCLM) in small sample cases is proposed, which inspired by the immune system's continuous improvement of immunity through injecting vaccines. Data-driven classification method requires a large number of historical data to establish a pattern recognition model with good generalization performance. However, in practice, the data that can be used for training is usually small and unbalanced, which lead to poor classification accuracy. In addition, batch learning method cannot improve continually classification performance by learning test phase data. In view of the above problems, SCLM generates sample as vaccine by finding the group center of training samples, so that B cells mature and activate memory cells in the train phase. In the test phase, the recognition ability of SCLM is further improved by learning new samples and updating memory cells. In order to evaluate its performance under the condition of less training samples and its possible advantages, the experiments on well-known datasets in UCI repository and reciprocating compressor faults diagnose were performed. The results show that SCLM has better classification performance than other methods when the number of training samples is insufficient. At the same time, the method of generating data has significantly improved the classification performance of other methods.

Persistent up-regulation of polyribosomes at synapses during long-term memory, reconsolidation, and extinction of associative memory.

Local protein synthesis at synapses can provide a rapid supply of proteins to support synaptic changes during consolidation of new memories, but its role in the maintenance or updating of established memories is unknown. Consolidation requires new protein synthesis in the period immediately following learning, whereas established memories are resistant to protein synthesis inhibitors. We have previously reported that polyribosomes are up-regulated in the lateral amygdala (LA) during consolidation of aversive-cued Pavlovian conditioning. In this study, we used serial section electron microscopy reconstructions to determine whether the distribution of dendritic polyribosomes returns to baseline during the long-term memory phase. Relative to control groups, long-term memory was associated with up-regulation of polyribosomes throughout dendrites, including in dendritic spines of all sizes. Retrieval of a consolidated memory by presentation of a small number of cues induces a new, transient requirement for protein synthesis to maintain the memory, while presentation of a large number of cues results in extinction learning, forming a new memory. One hour after retrieval or extinction training, the distribution of dendritic polyribosomes was similar except in the smallest spines, which had more polyribosomes in the extinction group. Our results demonstrate that the effects of learning on dendritic polyribosomes are not restricted to the transient translation-dependent phase of memory formation. Cued Pavlovian conditioning induces persistent synapse strengthening in the LA that is not reversed by retrieval or extinction, and dendritic polyribosomes may therefore correlate generally with synapse strength as opposed to recent activity or transient translational processes.

The role of working memory updating, inhibition, fluid intelligence, and reading comprehension in explaining differences between consistent and inconsistent arithmetic word-problem-solving performance

Children’s performance in arithmetic word problems (AWPs) predicts their academic success and their future employment and earnings in adulthood. Understanding the nature and difficulties of interpreting and solving AWPs is important for theoretical, educational, and social reasons. We investigated the relation between primary school children’s performance in different types of AWPs and their basic cognitive abilities (reading comprehension, fluid intelligence, inhibition, and updating processes). The study involved 182 fourth- and fifth-graders. Participants were administered an AWP-solving task and other tasks assessing fluid intelligence, reading comprehension, inhibition, and updating. The AWP-solving task included comparison problems incorporating either the adverb more than or the adverb less than, which demand consistent or inconsistent operations of addition or subtraction. The results showed that consistent problems were easier than inconsistent problems. Efficiency in solving inconsistent problems is related to inhibition and updating. Moreover, our results seem to indicate that the consistency effect is related to updating processes’ efficiency. Path analyses showed that reading comprehension was the most important predictor of AWP-solving accuracy. Moreover, both executive functions—updating and inhibition—had a distinct and significant effect on AWP accuracy. Fluid intelligence had both direct and indirect effects, mediated by reading comprehension, on the overall measure of AWP performance. These domain-general factors are important factors in explaining children’s performance in solving consistent and inconsistent AWPs.

Examining the role of information integration in the continued influence effect using an event segmentation approach.

Misinformation regarding the cause of an event often continues to influence an individual's event-related reasoning, even after they have received a retraction. This is known as the continued influence effect (CIE). Dominant theoretical models of the CIE have suggested the effect arises primarily from failures to retrieve the correction. However, recent research has implicated information integration and memory updating processes in the CIE. As a behavioural test of integration, we applied an event segmentation approach to the CIE paradigm. Event segmentation theory suggests that incoming information is parsed into distinct events separated by event boundaries, which can have implications for memory. As such, when an individual encodes an event report that contains a retraction, the presence of event boundaries should impair retraction integration and memory updating, resulting in an enhanced CIE. Experiments 1 and 2 employed spatial event segmentation boundaries in an attempt to manipulate the ease with which a retraction can be integrated into a participant's mental event model. While Experiment 1 showed no impact of an event boundary, Experiment 2 yielded evidence that an event boundary resulted in a reduced CIE. To the extent that this finding reflects enhanced retrieval of the retraction relative to the misinformation, it is more in line with retrieval accounts of the CIE.

Episodic memory updating among older adults: moderating role of prior knowledge

ABSTRACT Memory updating is an adaptive function that requires people’s registry of changes of episodes. However, the research on the role of prior knowledge on memory updating among older adults is scant. We instructed young and older adults to learn two sets of pairs with overlapping scene (A) on Day 1 (A-B) and Day 2 (A-C) and tested the competing memories on Day 3. We further manipulated the schema-congruency between item (B/C) and scene (A). Young adults performed comparatively well in the A-B and A-C memory tests, and showed no difference under different congruency conditions. However, memory updating among older adults was moderated by prior knowledge, with better memory performance in A-C test relative to A-B test when the to-be-updated item C was schema-congruent, however, with poorer memory performance in the A-C test when the to-be-updated item is schema-incongruent. This study advances the understanding that prior knowledge significantly contributes to memory updating among older adults. They would experience retroactive interference when the to-be-updated memories were consistent with their prior knowledge, yet proactive interference when the to-be-updated memories were inconsistent with their prior knowledge. Meanwhile, prior knowledge among young adults does not affect memory updating, given that their memory patterns are consistent across congruency conditions.

Processing symmetry between visual and auditory spatial representations in updating working memory.

Updating spatial representations in visual and auditory working memory relies on common processes, and the modalities should compete for attentional resources. If competition occurs, one type of spatial information is presumably weighted over the other, irrespective of sensory modality. This study used incompatible spatial information conveyed from two different cue modalities to examine relative dominance in memory updating. Participants mentally manoeuvred a designated target in a matrix according to visual or auditory stimuli that were presented simultaneously, to identify a terminal location. Prior to the navigation task, the relative perceptual saliences of the visual cues were manipulated to be equal, superior, or inferior to the auditory cues. The results demonstrate that visual and auditory information competed for attentional resources, such that visual/auditory guidance was impaired by incongruent cues delivered from the other modality. Although visual bias was generally observed in working-memory navigation, stimuli of relatively high salience interfered with or facilitated other stimuli regardless of modality, demonstrating the processing symmetry of spatial updating in visual and auditory spatial working memory. Furthermore, this processing symmetry can be identified during the encoding of sensory inputs into working-memory representations. The results imply that auditory spatial updating is comparable to visual spatial updating in that salient stimuli receive a high priority when selecting inputs and are used when tracking spatial representations.

The Task-Dependent Modular Covariance Networks Unveiled by Multiple-Way Fusion-Based Analysis.

Cognitive processes induced by the specific task are underpinned by intrinsic anatomical structures with functional neural activation patterns. However, current covariance network analysis still pays much attention to brain morphologies or baseline activity due to the lack of an effective method for capturing the structural-functional covarying during tasks. Here, a multimodal covariance network (MCN) construction method was proposed to identify inter-regional covariations of the structural skeleton and functional activities by simultaneous magnetic resonance imaging and electroencephalogram (EEG). Results from two independent cohorts confirmed that MCNs could capture cognition-specific hierarchical modules in joint comprehensive multimodal features well, especially when time-resolved EEG was further integrated. The quantitative evaluation further demonstrates significantly larger modularity of MCN integrating fine-grained features from EEG. The application to the discovery cohort identified prominent modular covarying across the default mode and salience networks at rest, while the visual oddball task was accomplished by synchronous structural-functional cooperation within networks associated with attention control and working memory updating. Strikingly, the results of an external validation cohort showed a different covariant pattern corresponding to decision-specific cognitive modules. Overall, the results suggested that multimodal covariance analysis provides a reliable definition of multistate neural cognitive networks, further discloses modular-specific structural and functional co-variation.

Object Tracking via Spatial-Temporal Memory Network

Temporal and spatial contexts, characterizing target appearance variations and target-background differences, respectively, are crucial for improving the online adaptive ability and instance-level discriminative ability of object tracking. However, most existing trackers focus on either the temporal context or the spatial context during tracking and have not exploited these contexts simultaneously and effectively. In this paper, we propose a Spatial-TEmporal Memory (STEM) network to exploit these contexts jointly for object tracking. Specifically, we develop a key-value structured memory model equipped with a key-value index-based memory reading mechanism to model the spatial and temporal contexts simultaneously. To update the memory with new target states and ensure the diversity of the memory, we introduce a similarity-aware memory update scheme. In addition, we construct an entropy-guided ensemble strategy to fuse the prediction models based on these two contexts, such that these two contexts can be exploited to estimate the target state jointly. Extensive experimental results on eight challenging datasets, including OTB2015, TC128, UAV123, VOT2018, LaSOT, TrackingNet, GOT-10k, and OxUvA, demonstrate that the proposed method performs favorably against state-of-the-art trackers.

A Circuit Model for Working Memory Based on Hybrid Positive and Negative-Derivative Feedback Mechanism.

Working memory (WM) plays an important role in cognitive activity. The WM system is used to temporarily store information in learning and decision-making. WM always functions in many aspects of daily life, such as the short-term memory of words, cell phone verification codes, and cell phone numbers. In young adults, studies have shown that a central memory store is limited to three to five meaningful items. Little is known about how WM functions at the microscopic neural level, but appropriate neural network computational models can help us gain a better understanding of it. In this study, we attempt to design a microscopic neural network model to explain the internal mechanism of WM. The performance of existing positive feedback models depends on the parameters of a synapse. We use a negative-derivative feedback mechanism to counteract the drift in persistent activity, making the hybrid positive and negative-derivative feedback (HPNF) model more robust to common disturbances. To fulfill the mechanism of WM at the neural circuit level, we construct two main neural networks based on the HPNF model: a memory-storage sub-network (the memory-storage sub-network is composed of several sets of neurons, so we call it “SET network”, or “SET” for short) with positive feedback and negative-derivative feedback and a storage distribution network (SDN) designed by combining SET for memory item storage and memory updating. The SET network is a neural information self-sustaining mechanism, which is robust to common disturbances; the SDN constructs a storage distribution network at the neural circuit level; the experimental results show that our network can fulfill the storage, association, updating, and forgetting of information at the level of neural circuits, and it can work in different individuals with little change in parameters.

The time window of reconsolidation: A replication.

Reconsolidation is a process by which a consolidated memory that has been destabilized by reactivation is updated, strengthened, or weakened by the restabilization of the trace. A critical assumption of the reconsolidation theory is that reconsolidation is a time-dependent process. Hupbach, Gomez, Hardt, and Nadel (2007, Learning & Memory, 14, 47–53) conducted a set of experiments demonstrating that memory updating is only found when the reconsolidation process has time to complete. This finding strengthens reconsolidation theory and poses a challenge to other accounts of memory updating (e.g., context and interference accounts). Because this finding is so critical to the reconsolidation theory, we attempted to directly replicate these experiments, which showed memory updating in a 3-day paradigm (when reconsolidation has time to complete), but not in a 2-day paradigm (when reconsolidation does not have time to complete). We replicated these results, thereby bolstering the reconsolidation theory of memory updating.Supplementary InformationThe online version contains supplementary material available at 10.3758/s13423-022-02102-3.

Hidden talents in context: Cognitive performance with abstract versus ecological stimuli among adversity-exposed youth.

Adversity‐exposed youth tend to score lower on cognitive tests. However, the hidden talents approach proposes some abilities are enhanced by adversity, especially under ecologically relevant conditions. Two versions of an attention‐shifting and working memory updating task—one abstract, one ecological—were administered to 618 youth (M age = 13.62, SD age = 0.81; 48.22% female; 64.56% White). Measures of environmental unpredictability, violence, and poverty were collected to test adversity × task version interactions. There were no interactions for attention shifting. For working memory updating, youth exposed to violence and poverty scored lower than their peers with abstract stimuli but almost just as well with ecological stimuli. These results are striking compared to contemporary developmental science, which often reports lowered performance among adversity‐exposed youth.

An adaptive synaptic array using Fowler\u2013Nordheim dynamic analog memory

In this paper we present an adaptive synaptic array that can be used to improve the energy-efficiency of training machine learning (ML) systems. The synaptic array comprises of an ensemble of analog memory elements, each of which is a micro-scale dynamical system in its own right, storing information in its temporal state trajectory. The state trajectories are then modulated by a system level learning algorithm such that the ensemble trajectory is guided towards the optimal solution. We show that the extrinsic energy required for state trajectory modulation can be matched to the dynamics of neural network learning which leads to a significant reduction in energy-dissipated for memory updates during ML training. Thus, the proposed synapse array could have significant implications in addressing the energy-efficiency imbalance between the training and the inference phases observed in artificial intelligence (AI) systems.

Exploring reliable visual tracking via target embedding network

Most prevalent trackers have the aid of more powerful appearance models, aiming to learn more discriminative deep representations for a reliable response map. Nevertheless, it is not a piece of cake to obtain an accurate response map on account of diverse challenges. What ismore, discriminative appearance model based trackers with an online update component require dynamic samples to update the target classifier, which inevitably learns the imprecise tracking results into the model, thus reducing its discriminant ability. To alleviate this matter, we propose a brand-new verification mechanism via Target Embedding Network, the intention of which is to learn general target embedding features offline for improving the similarity of the same target while dissimilarity of the different targets. In particular, we devise a simpler select strategy for negative samples and adopt the multiple triple loss to effectively train the network. Furthermore, we adopt a valid cosine similarity method to metric the target embedding features between the initial frame and current frame targets. According to the comparison results between the similarity score and piecewise thresholds, this method can retain the discriminant ability of the tracker by controlling the update of the sample memory and the learning rate. We replace the hard sample mining strategy used by recent SuperDiMP and conduct comprehensive experimental tests and analyses of our approach on six public datasets. Extensive experiments demonstrate that the discriminative ability of the model can be maintained with effect by using the proposed method, acquiring a superior performance against state-of-the-art trackers. The code, raw tracking results and trained models will be released at https://github.com/hexdjx/VisTrack.

Total Sleep Deprivation Triggers Greater Activation in the Parietal Brain in the Visual Working Memory Updating Processes: An Event-Related Potentials Study.

Working memory functions are known to be altered after total sleep deprivation (TSD). However, few studies have explored the deficits of working memory updating (WMU) after TSD, or the underlying electrophysiological mechanisms of these alterations. In the current exploratory study, we enrolled 14 young male volunteers who performed two kinds of WMU tasks—spatial and object two-back tasks—with simultaneous electroencephalography recordings under two sleep conditions: a normal sleep baseline condition and after 36 h of TSD. Repeated-measures analysis of variance showed that compared with those at baseline, the rates of correct responses in the WMU tasks decreased significantly after TSD. Analysis of event-related potentials revealed that the average amplitude of P3 components decreased significantly in the frontal and central brain regions and increased significantly in the parietal brain regions. Our findings suggest that TSD damages WMU behavior, impairs cognitive functions in the frontal and central brain regions, and triggers greater activation in the parietal brain regions. This is the first study to report the existence of event-related compensatory neural activity. This event-related compensatory effect may provide a new perspective for understanding the mechanisms underlying the influences triggered by sleep loss.

Residual memory inference network for regression tracking with weighted gradient harmonized loss

Recently, the memory mechanism has been widely implemented in target tracking. However, these trackers hardly balance the stability of long-term memory with the plasticity of short-term memory through an elegant and efficient mechanism. A residual memory inference network (RMIT) is proposed to exploit the history of target states and last visual features. Specifically, RMIT consists of a base layer and a residual memory layer by synergizing short-and long-term memories. The base layer can be regarded as Discriminative Correlation Filter (DCF) reformulation that maintains the short-term memory to accommodate rapid appearance changes. The residual memory layer can extend residual learning from the spatial domain to the Spatio-temporal domain via ConvLSTM to obtain long-term memory of the target appearance. To avoid model degradation due to sample imbalance, we introduce a weighted gradient harmonized loss to improve the discrimination of the tracker. Then, response scores can be served as a basis of the adaptive learning strategy to ensure the reliability of memory updates. The proposed method performs favorably and has been extensively validated on six benchmark datasets, including OTB-50/100, TC-128, UAV-123, and VOT-2016/2018 against several advanced methods.

Differential Effects of N-methyl-D-aspartate Receptors Activation in the Insular Cortex during Memory Formation and Updating of a Motivational Conflict Task

Recognizing and weighing the value of stimuli is necessary for survival, as it allows living things to respond quickly and adequately to new experiences by comparing them with previous ones. Recent evidence shows that context change could affect flavor learning, suggesting a more intricate scenario during complex associations of stimuli with opposite or different valence in a motivational conflict task. Furthermore, linked to the ability to weigh the value of stimuli is the ability to predict the consequences associated with them from previous experiences. The insular cortex (IC) is a brain hub connecting and integrating different sensory, emotional, motivational, and cognitive processing systems. In this regard, previous evidence indicates that glutamatergic activity in this area, mediated by N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), could be important during positive or negative valence encoding. Hence, the present study examines the involvement of NMDARs in the IC during a complex association of stimuli with opposite valence through the modified inhibitory avoidance (MIA) task and memory updating of a previously learned appetitive context during latent inhibition of the MIA process. This study demonstrates that during a motivational conflict-learning task with stimuli of opposite valences, avoidance memory formation will prevail. NMDARs activation in the IC decreases avoidance memory formation during a complex task (MIA) but not memory formation for an appetitive context. Furthermore, NMDARs activation does not affect the transition from appetitive to aversive learning. Overall, our results propose a different IC-NMDARs function during novel learning and memory updating.

Reading with induced worry: The role of physiological self-regulation and working memory updating in text comprehension.

An interplay of emotional and cognitive aspects underlies academic performance. We focused on the contribution of such interplay to text comprehension. We investigated the effect of worry on comprehension and the role of two potential moderators of this effect: physiological self-regulation as resting heart rate variability (HRV) and working memory updating. Eighty-two seventh graders were involved in a quasi-experimental design. Students read an informational text in one of two reading conditions: to read for themselves to know more (n = 46; low-worry condition) or to gain the highest score in a ranking (n = 36; high-worry condition). Students' resting HRV was recorded while watching a video of a natural scenario. The executive function of working memory updating was also assessed. After reading, students completed a comprehension task. Findings revealed the moderating role of HRV in the relationship between induced worry and text comprehension. In the high-worry condition, students with higher resting HRV performed better than students who read under the same instructions but had lower HRV. In contrast, in the low-worry condition, students with higher resting HRV showed a lower performance as compared to students with lower HRV. Finally, working memory updating was positively related to text comprehension. Our findings indicate that the cognitive component of anxiety, that is, worry, plays a role in performing a fundamental learning activity like text comprehension. The importance of physiological self-regulation emerges clearly. In a condition of high worry, higher ability to regulate emotions and thoughts acts as a protective factor.