Unusual Species Research Articles

Description and phylogenetic position of an unusual genus and species of allocreadiid trematode from a characid freshwater fish in South America

The worldwide distributed family Allocreadiidae Looss, 1902 is predominantly parasitic in freshwater fish and occasionally in amphibians and reptiles. It contains 15 genera, of which only Allocreadium, Creptotrema, Wallinia and Creptotrematina have been reported in Argentina. The records of Allocreadium species still require further verification. The discovery of an allocreadiid digenean parasitizing Pseudocorynopoma doriae led us to erect a new genus for which the name Martorellia n. gen is proposed. It is characterized by poorly developed ventrolateral muscular lobes and a transversely elongated ovary, with the most characteristic feature being the presence of vitelline follicles in two fields (one anterior at level of ventral sucker and one posterior to the testis), which are not confluent in the middle. The phylogenetic tree reconstructed with 28S rDNA sequences placed the new genus as the sister taxa of Creptotrematina. Although both genera are separated by a small genetic distance, it is comparable with those separating other allocreadiid genera. The discovery of Martorellia liciae gen et sp. nov. provides further evidence of the great diversity of Allocreadiidae in South America. The analysis of new samples from different South American hosts with an integrative taxonomic approach as the one used here allows a better understanding of the evolutionary history and biogeography of allocreadiids in the Americas.

Five new species and numerous locality records of Spirobolida millipedes from Madagascar (Diplopoda, Spirobolida, Pachybolidae)

Based mainly on the results of generalized American biodiversity inventory programmes, several samples of Malagasy Spirobolida millipedes became available to study. Based on this material, five new species of Spirobolida are described from Madagascar: four potential microendemic species, Aphistogoniulus amberivery sp. nov. from the Amberivery forest, A. manombo sp. nov., from the lowland rainforest of Manombo, Spiromimus endemicus sp. nov. from the Montagne des Français, and a species from the littoral forest of Tampolo, tentatively placed in the genus Eucarlia Brölemann, 1913, E. tampolo sp. nov.. A fifth species appears to be more widespread and is a morphologically unusual species of the genus Alluviobolus Wesener, 2009, A. omega sp. nov.. Aphistogoniulus manombo sp. nov. was previously described as a population of A. jeekeli Decker & Wesener, 2011. One of the most enigmatic Malagasy millipede species, Spirobolus olympiacus Karsch, 1881, is redescribed based on topotypic material as Colossobolus olympiacus (Karsch, 1881) new combination. Additional locality data is provided for 14 other Spirobolida species, of which 11 are listed on the IUCN Red List: Aphistogoniulus aridus Wesener, 2009, A. diabolicus Wesener, 2009, A. erythrocephalus (Pocock, 1893), A. hova (de Saussure & Zehntner, 1897), Colossobolus semicyclus Wesener, 2009, Spiromimus albipes Wesener & Enghoff, 2009, S. litoralis Wesener & Enghoff, 2009, S. simplex Wesener & Enghoff, 2009, S. triaureus Wesener & Enghoff, 2009, S. univirgatus deSaussure & Zehntner, 1901, Flagellobolus pauliani Wesener, 2009, Dactylobolus bivirgatus (Karsch, 1881), Madabolus maximus Wesener & Enghoff, 2008 and Hylekobolus rufus Wesener, 2009. Fourteen new genetic barcoding COI sequences are provided for nine species: Hylekobolus rufus, Colossobolus semicyclus, Aphistogoniulus amberivery sp. nov., A. aridus, A. diabolicus, A. erythrocephalus, A. hova, Spiromimus univirgatus and S. scapularis Wesener & Enghoff, 2009.

Metal–Organic Framework‐Induced Rh Monocoodination on Diphosphine Ligand Enables Catalytic Hydroformylation of Aliphatic Olefins at Room Temperature and Pressure

AbstractPersistent challenges in hydroformylation of olefins include controlling regioselectivity, particularly for short aliphatic olefins and conducting reactions under ambient conditions. We report here the synthesis of monophosphine–Rh complexes on a typical chelated diphosphine ligand mediated by a Zr‐MOF through isolating a pair of phosphorus atoms. We demonstrate that single‐crystal X‐ray diffraction can elucidate the structural transformation of the Rh catalyst during olefin hydroformylation, providing valuable information on active site reconstruction during catalysis. The Rh‐MOF catalyst demonstrates excellent catalytic and recyclable performance in the hydroformylation of short aliphatic olefins with linear to branched ratios of up to 99 : 1. Due to the framework‘s capacity to adsorb and concentrate gases, the catalytic reactions occur under room temperature and pressure, eliminating the need for the high temperature and pressures typically required in homogeneous systems. This study show that Zr–MOF can be a unique platform for synthesizing unusual catalytic species that cannot exist in solutions for meaningful chemical transformations and elucidate valuable structural information pertaining to metal‐based catalysis.

Metal-Organic Framework-Induced Rh Monocoodination on Diphosphine Ligand Enables Catalytic Hydroformylation of Aliphatic Olefins at Room Temperature and Pressure.

Persistent challenges in hydroformylation of olefins include controlling regioselectivity, particularly for short aliphatic olefins and conducting reactions under ambient conditions. We report here the synthesis of monophosphine-Rh complexes on a typical chelated diphosphine ligand mediated by a Zr-MOF through isolating a pair of phosphorus atoms. We demonstrate that single-crystal X-ray diffraction can elucidate the structural transformation of the Rh catalyst during olefin hydroformylation, providing valuable information on active site reconstruction during catalysis. The Rh-MOF catalyst demonstrates excellent catalytic and recyclable performance in the hydroformylation of short aliphatic olefins with linear to branched ratios of up to 99 : 1. Due to the framework's capacity to adsorb and concentrate gases, the catalytic reactions occur under room temperature and pressure, eliminating the need for the high temperature and pressures typically required in homogeneous systems. This study show that Zr-MOF can be a unique platform for synthesizing unusual catalytic species that cannot exist in solutions for meaningful chemical transformations and elucidate valuable structural information pertaining to metal-based catalysis.

Synonymous codon usage influences the transmission of peste des petits ruminants (PPR) virus in camels.

Peste des petits ruminants virus (PPRV) is an infectious pathogen; causing highly contagious, acute febrile, and economically important disease of small ruminants. The virus is known to have intrinsic ability to adapt new hosts and to cross the species barrier. The incidence of PPR has already been reported in unusual host species such as camels, bovines, and wild animals from spill-over or natural infection. Still, there are elementary gaps in our knowledge of the extent of susceptibility of camel to PPRV and the adaptability of PPRV to camel. The present study delineates the potential role of preferential codon usage patterns responsible for adaptation, host immune evasion, and transmission of PPRV to unusual hosts like old world camel species namely, dromedary and bactrian camel. The results indicate codon usage of the PPRV genome is functioned by an interplay of mutational pressure and natural selection to exhort the adaptation and fitness of PPRV in probable hosts. The indices of natural selection like the relative codon deoptimization index (RCDI) and codon adaptation index (CAI) predict the ability of PPRV to adapt and evolve in camel species. The analysis also depicts the potential role of the CpG depletion mechanism employed by PPRV to evade host adaptive immune response. The report emphasizes the need for a comprehensive national PPR surveillance plan in unusual hosts like camels for the successful implementation of the PPR Global Eradication Programme (PPR- GEP).

Human-De Brazza’s monkey conflict in Kafa Biosphere Reserve, Kafa Zone South West, Ethiopia

BackgroundHuman-wildlife conflict (HWC) is any interaction between humans and wildlife that arises when wildlife necessities encroach on those of the human population. It affects all areas where animal and peoples cohabit regardless of geography or climatic circumstances; but the burden is great in developing nations. De Brazza’s monkey (DM) (Cercopithecus neglectus) is one of the most unusual species in the group of Old-World monkeys commonly known as guenons. The De Brazza’s monkey is distributed in different parts of African forests from Guinea to Ethiopia. This study was conducted in Kafa Biosphere Reserve, Kafa Zone, South West Ethiopia, to assess the causes of human wildlife conflict in the area. The methods used were, household questionnaire, focus group discussion and direct field observation from June 2022 to May 2023.ResultsThe study revealed that the major causes of human De Brazza’s monkey conflicts were; habitat destruction 52.9%, (n = 72), human proximity to natural forest, 25.7%, (n = 35) and increasing of its population size 8.1 %, (n = 11). These monkeys’ raids crop usually early in the morning 42.6%, (n = 58), and late evening 29.4%, (n = 40). Maize was the most damaged crop by De Brazza’s monkey followed by coffee. The study also confirmed that guarding was the most common method used to protect crops from crop raiding wildlife in the area. Majority 66.2%, (n= 90) of the informants had negative attitude but 22.1%, (n = 30) had positive attitude towards De Brazza’s monkey conservation.ConclusionThe study discovered that, in contrast to olive baboons and grivet monkeys in the area, De Brazza's monkeys were not previously identified as crop raiders; however, they are currently causing damage to crops, especially maize and coffee crops. This could be due to habitat destruction and human proximity to the forest boundary. Thus, the conflict between humans and De Brazza's monkeys is escalating. As such, we recommended more research on the population status of the monkeys and strategies for coexist in the area.

Sampling of Culicoides with nontraditional methods provides unusual species composition and new records for southern Spain

BackgroundCulicoides midges have been well-studied in Spain, particularly over the last 20 years, mainly because of their role as vectors of arboviral diseases that affect livestock. Most studies on Culicoides are conducted using suction light traps in farmed environments, but studies employing alternative trapping techniques or focusing on natural habitats are scarce.MethodsIn the present study, we analyze Culicoides captured in 2023 at 476 sites in western Andalusia (southern Spain) using carbon dioxide-baited Biogents (BG)-sentinel traps across different ecosystems.ResultsWe collected 3,084 Culicoides midges (3060 females and 24 males) belonging to 23 species, including the new species Culicoides grandifovea sp. nov. and the first record of Culicoides pseudolangeroni for Europe. Both species were described with morphological and molecular methods and detailed data on spatial distribution was also recorded. The new species showed close phylogenetic relations with sequences from an unidentified Culicoides from Morocco (92.6% similarity) and with Culicoides kurensis. Culicoides imicola was the most abundant species (17.4%), followed by Culicoides grandifovea sp. nov. (14.6%) and Culicoides kurensis (11.9%). Interestingly, Culicoides montanus was the only species of the obsoletus and pulicaris species complexes captured, representing the first record of this species in southern Spain. A total of 53 valid Culicoides species have been reported in the area, with 48 already reported in literature records and 5 more added in the present study. Information on the flight period for the most common Culicoides species is also provided.ConclusionsTo the best of our knowledge, our study represents the most comprehensive effort ever done on nonfarmland habitats using carbon-dioxide baited suction traps for collecting Culicoides. Our data suggests that using carbon dioxide traps offers a completely different perspective on Culicoides communities compared with routinely used light traps, including the discovery of previously unrecorded species.Graphical

Stalking a non-native species on social media: Updating the distribution of Paysandisia archon (Burmeister, 1879) in Croatia through citizen science

In Europe, the palm borer moth, Paysandisia archon (Burmeister, 1879) is a non-native species which was introduced in the early 2000s. Since then, the moth has rapidly spread across the Mediterranean parts of Europe and started causing damage to both native and non-native palm trees. The first record for Croatia dates to 2011 when the moth was recorded in Split and Zadar. Since then, the spread of the species has not been documented in the scientific literature but being an unusual and invasive species, its expansions was reported across a wide array of internet sources, including social media. To comprehensively understand the current distribution of P. archon in Croatia, we systematically compiled data from citizen science platforms, social media, websites, and both published and personal observations. Our findings reveal a total of 112 records spanning most of the Mediterranean parts of Croatia, indicating a rapid and expansive distribution of the species. The caterpillars of this species develop within palms causing them to rot and eventually dry which causes economic and aesthetic losses. Severe economic damage in the horticultural sectors has been previously reported in countries like France and Italy, while in the western Mediterranean, it poses a conservation threat to native palm populations. Further monitoring and damage assessments should be carried out to understand to the full the impact of this non-native species in Croatia.

Covalent Transition Metal Borosilicides: Reaction Pathways in Molten Salts for Water Oxidation Electrocatalysis.

The properties of transition metal borides and silicides are intimately linked to the covalent character of the chemical bonds within their crystal structures. Bringing boron and silicon together within metal borosilicides can then engender different competing covalent networks and complex charge distributions. This situation results in unique structures and atomic environments, which can impact charge transport and catalytic properties. Metal borosilicides, however, hold the status of unusual exotic species, difficult to synthesize and with poor knowledge of their properties. Our strategy consists of developing a redox pathway to synthesize transition metal borosilicides in inorganic molten salts as high-temperature solvents. By studying the formation of Ni6Si2B, Co4.75Si2B, Fe5SiB2, and Mn5SiB2 with in situ X-ray diffraction, we highlight how new reaction routes, maintaining covalent structural building blocks, draw a general scheme of their formation. This pathway is driven by the covalence of the chemical bonds within the boron coordination framework. Next, we demonstrate high efficiency for water oxidation electrocatalysis, especially for Ni6Si2B. We ascribe the strongly increased resistance to corrosion, high stability, and electrocatalytic activity of the Ni6Si2B-derived material to three factors: (1) the two entangled boron and silicon covalent networks; (2) the ability to codope with boron and silicon an in situ generated catalytic layer; and (3) a rare electron enrichment of the transition metal by back-donation from boron atoms, previously unknown within this compound family. With this work, we then unveil a new chemical dimension for Earth-abundant water oxidation electrocatalysts by bringing to light a new family of materials.

Unraveling the Mechanism of the Oxidative C-C Bond Coupling Reaction Catalyzed by Deoxypodophyllotoxin Synthase.

Deoxypodophyllotoxin synthase (DPS), a nonheme Fe(II)/2-oxoglutarate (2OG)-dependent oxygenase, is a key enzyme that is involved in the construction of the fused-ring system in (-)-podophyllotoxin biosynthesis by catalyzing the C-C coupling reaction. However, the mechanistic details of DPS-catalyzed ring formation remain unclear. Herein, our quantum mechanics/molecular mechanics (QM/MM) calculations reveal a novel mechanism that involves the recycling of CO2 (a product of decarboxylation of 2OG) to prevent the formation of hydroxylated byproducts. Our results show that CO2 can react with the FeIII-OH species to generate an unusual FeIII-bicarbonate species. In this way, hydroxylation is avoided by consuming the OH group. Then, the C-C coupling followed by desaturation yields the final product, deoxypodophyllotoxin. This work highlights the crucial role of the CO2 molecule, generated in the crevice between the iron active site and the substrate, in controlling the reaction selectivity.

Synthesis and characterization of alkali metal iminophosphoranomethanide complexes

Herein we report the synthesis of three sets of alkali metal complexes with the iminophosphoranomethanide ligands {CH(SiMe3)P(Ph)2NSiMe3}− (TMSNPC-H) and {CH(SiMe2tBu)P(Ph)2NSiMe3}− (TBDMSNPC-H), the latter of which is first reported here. The compounds of general formula [M(RNPC-H)] (3-M and 4-M; M = Li, Na, K) were obtained via a protonolysis reaction between an alkyl reagent (n-butyllithium, benzylsodium, or benzylpotassium) and the proligand. All resulting compounds were characterized by multinuclear NMR, IR spectroscopy, elemental analysis and single crystal X-ray diffraction. We also attempted to prepare the separated ion pairs of [M(TMSNPC-H)] with the matched crown ethers, and obtained the ‘ate’ complexes [Li(12-crown-4)2]+[Li(TMSNPC-H)2]− (5-Li) and [Na(15-crown-5)2]+[Na(TMSNPC-H)2]− (5-Na), the coordination polymer [{K(18-crown-6)2}{K(TMSNPC-H)(18-crown-6)}(TMSNPC-H)]∞ (6) and separate ion pair complex [K(15-crown-5)2]+[TMSNPC-H]− (7). 5-Li is an unusual lithium-lithiate crown ether species, whilst 5-Na represents the first example of a sodium-sodiate crown-ether complex.

The Sect. Tricheroides in the genus Knautia (Caprifoliaceae) is more complex then known: an unusual new species from Türkiye

The Sect. Tricheroides in the genus Knautia (Caprifoliaceae) is more complex then known: an unusual new species from Türkiye

PREVALENCE AND ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE PROFILES OF BACTERIAL ISOLATED FROM BURN WOUND INFECTIONS

Burn wound infections remain a sizeable assignment, especially because of the superiority of multidrug-resistant gram-negative organisms. The objective of this take a look at was to assess the superiority of bacterial infections in burn wounds, perceive the most not unusual bacterial species, and determine their antibiotic resistance profiles. A overall of eighty samples had been amassed from burn sufferers. Bacterial cultures were performed, and the isolated bacteria were identified using standard microbiological techniques. Antibiotic susceptibility testing was conducted using the disc diffusion method. In this study, 44 samples (73.3%) tested positive for bacterial growth. Pseudomonas sp. was the most commonly isolated bacteria (56%), followed by Staphylococcus aureus (22%) and others. Antibiotic resistance profiling revealed high resistance rates among the isolated bacteria, with Rifampicin showing the highest resistance rate (80%), followed by Cefotaxime (64%) and Amoxicillin (56%). The high prevalence of multidrug-resistant gram-negative organisms in burn wound infections underscores the urgent need for effective antibiotic management strategies. These findings highlight the importance of continuous surveillance of antibiotic resistance patterns and the development of tailored treatment protocols to mitigate the morbidity and mortality associated with burn wound infections. Additionally, there is a critical need for the development of new antimicrobial agents and infection control measures to combat the growing threat of antibiotic resistance in burn care settings.

An unusual new species of Melandrya Fabricius, 1801 (Coleoptera: Melandryidae) with new distributional notes for two additional Melandrya from Southwest China

An unusual Melandrya species with raised, pale yellowish-orange elytral spots like many species of Helotidae is described as Melandrya (s. str.) helotoides sp. nov. from Guizhou Province in southwest China. It is the ninth species of Melandrya from China. New distributional records are also provided for Melandrya (Bonzicus) incostata Fairmaire, 1889 and Melandrya (Bonzicus) coccinea (Lewis, 1895). All three species are reported from Leigongshan National Nature Reserve. The record for M. (B.) coccinea represents a new provincial occurrence for Guizhou Province. Habitus illustrations of the three species are provided.

Patterns of summer ichthyoplankton distribution, including invasive species, in the Bering and Chukchi Seas

A multidisciplinary survey was carried out in the Pacific Arctic and sub-Arctic regions of the North Pacific Ocean on the Korean icebreaking research vessel Araon. During this survey, ichthyoplankton fishes in the Pacific Arctic and sub-Arctic region ranged from the Bering Sea to the northern Chukchi Shelf in summer. The most dominant species was Gadus chalcogrammus, followed by Pleuronectes quadrituberculatus and Boreogadus saida. Gadus chalcogrammus and P. quadrituberculatus were particularly abundant near the Bering Sea and Bering Strait, whereas B. saida was dominant in the Chukchi Sea. Hierarchical cluster analysis revealed four distinct ichthyoplankton communities in Pacific Arctic and sub-Arctic regions based on geographical regions. However, Eleginus gracilis, which was previously known to be seen between latitudes 66.5°N and 69.5°N, was found above 70°N, suggesting that its distribution extends further north. Furthermore, we noticed that Benthosema glaciale, which is usually found in the Atlantic sector of Arctic Ocean, was observed in the northern Chukchi Sea. In addition to these unusual species distributions, several species that are mainly observed in coastal areas are observed in the Chukchi Sea region. The observed influx of various uncommon fish species into the Chukchi Sea can be attributed to multiple factors, including freshwater inflow from the East Siberian Sea and the intrusion of warm Atlantic and Pacific waters, which are strongly affected by global warming. Consequently, it is imperative to conduct rigorous monitoring of the Pacific Arctic region, with a particular focus on the Chukchi Sea, to better understand the implications of global warming.

Long monitoring of Birds of Elssuki Area. Sinnar State, Sudan

This study aims to make a database of the birds in the area of Elssuki, Sinnar state - Sudan. The period of study spanning from 2008 to 2023 with a mix of methods used to identify bird species in many sites in the locality, these methods include road count, line transects, and direct count besides registering every strange, rare, or unusual single species seen in the area. All these methods are used by different researchers and applied in such studies in Sudan. The study revealed that the area is one of the important areas enriched of birds in Sinnar state of 19 orders 53 families. The total number of species is 129 species. It included all birds; water birds, tree birds, diving birds, dabbling birds, swimming birds, small waders, and passerines which the most. The study concluded that there is a need for comprehensive and regular studies and short and long-term monitoring to identify, classify, and establish a database for Sudan Birds Atlas.

Superalkalis with Hydrogen as Central Electronegative Atom and their Possible Applications: Ab Initio and DFT Study.

Superalkalis are unusual species having ionization energies lower than that of the alkali metals. These species with various applications are of great importance in chemistry due to their low ionization energies and strong reducing property. A typical superalkali contains a central electronegative core decorated with excess metal ligands. In the quest for novel superalkalis, we have designed the superalkalis HLi2, HLiNa and HNa2 using hydrogen as central electronegative atom for the first time employing high level ab initio (CCSD(T), MP2) and density functional theory (ωB97X-D) methods. The superalkalis exhibit very low ionization energies, even lower than that of cesium. Stability of these species is verified from binding energy and dissociation energy values. The superalkalis are capable of reducing SO2, NO, CO2, CO and N2 molecules by forming stable ionic complexes and therefore can be used as catalysts for the reduction or activation of systems possessing very low electron affinities. The superalkalis form stable supersalts with tailored properties when interact with a superhalogen. They also show remarkably high non-linear optical responses, hence could have industrial applications. It is hoped that this work will enrich the superalkali family and spur further theoretical and experimental research in this direction.

Another Brick in the Wall of Tear Film Insights Added Through the Total Synthesis and Biophysical Profiling of anteiso-Branched Wax and Cholesteryl Esters.

The tear film lipid layer (TFLL) plays a vital part in maintenance of ocular health and represents a unique biological barrier comprising unusual and specialized lipid classes and species. The wax and cholesteryl esters (WEs and CEs) constitute roughly 80-90% of the TFLL. The majority of species in these lipid classes are branched and it is therefore surprising that the synthesis and properties of the second largest category of species, i.e., the anteiso-branched species, remain poorly characterized. In this study, we have developed a total synthesis route and completed a detailed NMR spectroscopic characterization of two common anteiso-branched species, namely: (22S)-22-methyltetracosanyl oleate and cholesteryl (22'S)-22'-methyltetracosanoate. In addition, we have studied their structural properties in the bulk state by wide-angle and small-angle X-ray scattering and their behavior at the aqueous interface using Langmuir monolayer techniques. A comparison to the properties displayed by iso-branched and straight-chain analogues indicate that branching patterns lead to distinct properties in the CE and WE lipid classes. Overall, this study complements the previous work in the field and adds another important brick in the tear film insights wall.

Weed Flora Composition in Upland Direct Seeded Rice in Brahmaputra River Ecotones and Edges in Majuli District, Assam

Background: The River Brahmaputra is one of the largest braided rivers in the world, where the island and bars (“Chapories”) are formed almost annually by erosion and deposition, which are good agricultural lands, as most of the depositions are extremely fertile and possess ready water source in close proximity. With an aim to depict the weed vegetation pattern in upland direct seeded rice ecosystem in such an ecotone zone, Chapories of Majuli district were surveyed during 2021 and 2022. Methods: One square meter quadrates were plotted in between 20 to 65 days after sowing (before flowering) of rice to study the weed status in the critical period of crop weed competition in four locations. Result: Study recorded altogether 55 species of weedy nature in four locations with as many as 39 broadleaved species belonging to 25 families, 3 sedges and 13 grasses, which represented a great diversity with several unusual species unique to chapori areas. Isolation of location - 4 by water channel has contributed in increasing dissimilarity with respect to weed flora, though river water might have had great role in distribution of weeds especially the stubble borne perennial species. The cumulative IVI of grass species was also 30.4 per cent higher in this isolated location than the non-grass species, unlike the locations that had land connectivity with shore areas.

A remarkable new deep-sea nereidid (Annelida: Nereididae) with gills.

Nereidid polychaetes are well known from shallow marine habitats, but their diversity in the deep sea is poorly known. Here we describe an unusual new nereidid species found at methane seeps off the Pacific coast of Costa Rica. Specimens of Pectinereis strickrotti gen. nov., sp. nov. had been observed dating back to 2009 swimming just above the seafloor at ~1,000 m depth but were not successfully captured until 2018. Male epitokes were collected as well as a fragment of an infaunal female found in a pushcore sample. The specimens were all confirmed as the same species based on mitochondrial COI. Phylogenetic analyses, including one based on available whole mitochondrial genomes for nereidids, revealed no close relative, allowing for the placement of the new species in its own genus within the subfamily Nereidinae. This was supported by the unusual non-reproductive and epitokous morphology, including parapodial cirrostyles as pectinate gills, hooked aciculae, elfin-shoe-shaped ventral cirrophores, and elongate, fusiform dorsal ligules emerging sub-medially to enlarged cirrophores. Additionally, the gill-bearing subfamily Dendronereidinae, generally regarded as a junior synonym of Gymnonereidinae, is reviewed and it is here reinstated and as a monogeneric taxon.