Unusual Sequence Research Articles

A qualitative confocal microscopy study on a range of colloidal processes by simulating microgravity conditions through slow rotations

We report qualitatively on the differences between colloidal systems left to evolve in the Earth's gravitational field and the same systems for which a slow continuous rotation averaged out the effects of particle sedimentation on a distance scale small compared to the particle size. Several systems of micron-sized colloidal particles were studied: a hard sphere fluid, colloids interacting via long-range electrostatic repulsion above the freezing volume fraction, an oppositely charged colloidal system close to either gelation and/or crystallization, colloids with a competing short-range depletion attraction and a long-range electrostatic repulsion, colloidal dipolar chains, and colloidal gold platelets under conditions where they formed stacks. Important differences in structure formation were observed between the experiments where the particles were allowed to sediment and those where sedimentation was averaged out. For instance, in the case of colloids interacting via long-range electrostatic repulsion, an unusual sequence of dilute-fluid–dilute-crystal–dense-fluid–dense-crystal phases was observed throughout the suspension under the effect of gravity. This was related to the volume fraction dependence of the colloidal interactions, whereas the system stayed homogeneously crystallized with rotation. For the oppositely charged colloids, a gel-like structure was found to collapse under the influence of gravity with a few crystalline layers grown on top of the sediment, whereas when the colloidal sedimentation was averaged out, the gel completely transformed into crystallites that were oriented randomly throughout the sample. Rotational averaging out of gravitational sedimentation is an effective and cheap way to estimate the importance of gravity for colloidal self-assembly processes.

Oligomer formation, metalation, and the existence of aggregation-prone and mobile sequences within the intracrystalline protein family, Asprich

The formation of crack propagation—resistant single crystal calcite in the prismatic layer of the mollusk shell involves the participation of a number of different proteins, some of which form intracrystalline organic inclusions. One protein family, Asprich (Atrina rigida), participate in the ACC formation/transformation process and become occluded within calcite. However, these two phenomena are poorly understood. Here, we experimentally establish that the Asprich “3” protein oligomerizes in solution over a wide pH range and that this oligomerization process is enhanced by the presence of Ca2+ ions, which form complexes with this protein as verified by ESI-MS. Bioinformatics analyses confirm that intrinsic disorder and unstable interactive domains constitute the entire length of each Asprich sequence. In addition, an amyloid- or prion-like aggregation-prone region was identified within the highly conserved 12 AA N-terminal sequence, KPVFKRSLSDPS. Together, these bioinformatics findings suggest that different sequence elements of the Asprich family contribute to the observed oligomerization process. Solution NMR studies of Asprich “3” protein assemblies document that portions of the 12 AA N-terminal domain are mobile within these assemblies. This mobility is driven by Pro imido ring cis-trans isomerization at P11, and this induces multiple conformational states for V3, R6, and L8 which lie upstream of this Pro residue. This Asprich “3” Pro-induced conformational exchange phenomena parallels other findings obtained for self-assembling nacre layer- and tooth enamel-specific biomineralization proteins. In conclusion, we have identified the presence of self-association, unusual sequence behavior, and ion clustering phenomena in Asprich “3” and we believe that these are key factors in the ability of Asprich proteins to control ACC formation and form organic inclusions that resist crack propagation.

Crystal Growth and Structure of the New Ferrimagnetic Oxyphosphate PbFe3O(PO4)3

AbstractA new oxyphosphate, PbFe3O(PO4)3, has been discovered and its structure has been characterized by single‐crystal XRD between 293 and 973 K (monoclinic, space groupP21/m, a = 7.5826 Å, b = 6.3759 Å, c = 10.4245 Å, β = 99.956°, Z = 2, at r.t.). Direct‐current (DC) magnetic susceptibility and specific heat measurements performed on single crystals revealed an unusual sequence of second‐order ferromagnetic‐like phase transitions at Tc1 = 31.8 K, Tc2 = 23.4 K and Tc3 ≈ 10 K. Alternating‐current (AC) magnetic susceptibility measurements suggest glass‐like dynamics between ca. 20 K and Tc3.

Identical Gene Regulation Patterns of T3 and Selective Thyroid Hormone Receptor Modulator GC-1

Synthetic selective thyroid hormone (TH) receptor (TR) modulators (STRM) exhibit beneficial effects on dyslipidemias in animals and humans and reduce obesity, fatty liver, and insulin resistance in preclinical animal models. STRM differ from native TH in preferential binding to the TRβ subtype vs. TRα, increased uptake into liver, and reduced uptake into other tissues. However, selective modulators of other nuclear receptors exhibit important gene-selective actions, which are attributed to differential effects on receptor conformation and dynamics and can have profound influences in animals and humans. Although there are suggestions that STRM may exhibit such gene-specific actions, the extent to which they are actually observed in vivo has not been explored. Here, we show that saturating concentrations of the main active form of TH, T(3), and the prototype STRM GC-1 induce identical gene sets in livers of euthyroid and hypothyroid mice and a human cultured hepatoma cell line that only expresses TRβ, HepG2. We find one case in which GC-1 exhibits a modest gene-specific reduction in potency vs. T(3), at angiopoietin-like factor 4 in HepG2. Investigation of the latter effect confirms that GC-1 acts through TRβ to directly induce this gene but this gene-selective activity is not related to unusual T(3)-response element sequence, unlike previously documented promoter-selective STRM actions. Our data suggest that T(3) and GC-1 exhibit almost identical gene regulation properties and that gene-selective actions of GC-1 and similar STRM will be subtle and rare.

The Importance of Being Ernest (and Betty): First Name and Risk for Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Purpose: The unusual sequence of three unrelated patients with the same first name and a histopathologic diagnosis of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) prompted us to design a study to determine whether patients with certain first names were more frequently affected by Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or indeterminate forms of chronic inflammatory bowel disease. Methods: Using a nationwide database of colonic biopsy specimens from community-based endoscopy centers, we evaluated the frequency of a histopathologic diagnosis of Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, or indeterminate chronic inflammatory bowel disease in male and female subjects with the 20 most common names in the United States (www.ssa.gov/oact/babynames/background.html). For comparison, we also evaluated the frequency of microscopic colitis (collagenous or lymphocytic) and colonic adenomas. Results: Our database contained a total of 695,451 unique patients (median age 60 years; 50.4% female) from 43 states, DC and PR, who had colonoscopy with biopsies between 1-1-2008 and 12-31-2010. The lowest prevalence of IBD was found amongst males named Ernest (0.84%), while the name Jason was associated with the highest prevalence (12.71%; OR 17.2 95%CI 5.36 -55.06; p<.0001). Among females, the name Betty carried the lowest risk (1.15%) and Amanda the highest (9.43%; OR 8.92 95%CI 5.70 -13.95; p<.0001). The prevalence of microscopic colitis showed small non-significant variations amongst the name groups; in contrast, colonic adenomas were generally but not linearly, inversely associated to the prevalence of IBD. Age was a major determinant of the association between name and prevalence of IBD, as patients with low prevalence names were generally older than those with high prevalence. This association, however, was not universal; men named Benjamin and David had an identical median age (57 years) but the prevalence of IBD was 7.09% and 3.44%, respectively (p<.0001). All men of median age 57 and not named Benjamin had a prevalence of IBD of only 1.92% (OR 3.90 95%CI 2.74-553; p<.0001). Table 1 illustrates some representative prevalences.Table: No Caption available.Conclusion: These data show an apparently strong relationship between some common U.S. names and the prevalence of IBD. Secondary analyses provide some explanations for this odd phenomenon (mostly related to the different frequency of names in different decades and their respective reasons for colonoscopy) but there remain unexplained associations (such as the greater risk of IBD for Benjamin as compared to David), which subtler analyses (including socioeconomic status, racial or ethnic background, etc.) might help clarify. Our conclusions should serve as a warning that incomplete and sensationalistic analyses may yield misleading results.

EPIYA motif patterns among Cuban Helicobacter pylori CagA positive strains.

It is known that polymorphisms in C-terminal region of CagA influence gastric disease development on Helicobacter pylori infection. Additionally, the geographic distribution of these polymorphisms has been associated with the appearance of more severe gastroduodenal pathologies. Objective. To determine the CagA phosphorylation motifs pattern (EPIYA pattern) in Cuban H. pylori isolates, and to study its association with patient´s pathologies. DNAs from 95 H. pylori cagA-positive strains were used to amplify the 3´ variable region of cagA gene by PCR using two different strategies. Additionally, new primers were designed to identify either Western or Eastern CagAEPIYA motiftype by PCR. To confirm the PCR results, PCR products from 14 representative isolates were purified and sequenced. The distribution of the EPIYA motif found was: 2 AB (2.1 %), 1 AC (1.1 %), 1 BC (1.1 %), 70 ABC (73.6 %), 19 ABCC (20 %), and 2 ABCCC (2.1 %). Sequencing analysis confirmed the PCR classification in the 14 studied strains and showed three strains with unusual nucleotide sequences, not reported before. Distribution of the EPIYA-ABC pattern was equivalent in all pathologies (78.9 % in gastric ulcer, 72.5 % in duodenal ulcer and 72.2 % in non-ulcer dyspepsia). The PCR results using the new primers confirmed that all studied strains carried the Western CagA type. No specific EPIYA motif was associated with peptic ulcer. This is the first report that shows EPIYA motif distribution in H. pylori isolates from the Caribbean region.

EPIYA motif patterns among Cuban Helicobacter pylori CagA positive strains

Introduction. It is known that polymorphisms in C-terminal region of CagA influence gastric disease development on Helicobacter pylori infection. Additionally, the geographic distribution of these polymorphisms has been associated with the appearance of more severe gastroduodenal pathologies.Objective. To determine the CagA phosphorylation motifs pattern (EPIYA pattern) in Cuban H. pylori isolates, and to study its association with patient’s pathologies. Materials and methods. DNAs from 95 H. pylori cagA-positive strains were used to amplify the 3’ variable region of cagA gene by PCR using two different strategies. Additionally, new primers were designed to identify either Western or Eastern CagA EPIYA motif type by PCR. To confirm the PCR results, PCR products from 14 representative isolates were purified and sequencedResults. The distribution of the EPIYA motif found was: 2 AB (2.1 %), 1 AC (1.1 %), 1 BC (1.1 %), 70 ABC (73.6 %), 19 ABCC (20 %), and 2 ABCCC (2.1 %). Sequencing analysis confirmed the PCR classification in the 14 studied strains and showed three strains with unusual nucleotide sequences, not reported before. Distribution of the EPIYA-ABC pattern was equivalent in all pathologies (78.9 % in gastric ulcer, 72.5 % in duodenal ulcer and 72.2 % in non-ulcer dyspepsia).Conclusion. The PCR results using the new primers confirmed that all studied strains carried the Western CagA type. No specific EPIYA motif was associated with peptic ulcer. This is the first report that shows EPIYA motif distribution in H. pylori isolates from the Caribbean region.

SYN flooding attack detection by TCP handshake anomalies

ABSTRACTWe present an original approach to identify synchronize (SYN) flooding attacks from the victim's side, on the basis of a classification of the different forms that TCP handshakes can take during a connection set‐up between a client and a server (e.g. for Web traffic). We first identify the unusual handshake sequences that result from an attack and show how such observations can be used for SYN flooding attack detection. We then introduce a data structure to monitor, in real time, the state of the TCP handshake and study its performance. In addition, we explain the management of the data structure for operations such as initialization, adding and removing flows. Finally, we analyse the effectiveness of our TCP handshake monitoring to identify the presence of SYN flooding attacks by applying it to real traffic traces. To allow quick protection and help guarantee a proper defence, the detection is done in real time. Our detection system uses a non‐parametric cumulative sum algorithm (CUSUM), which has the benefit of not requiring a detailed model of the normal and attack traffic while achieving excellent detection levels. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley &amp; Sons, Ltd.

The 2007 Nazko, British Columbia, Earthquake Sequence: Injection of Magma Deep in the Crust beneath the Anahim Volcanic Belt

On 9 October 2007, an unusual sequence of earthquakes began in central British Columbia about 20 km west of the Nazko cone, the most recent (circa 7200 yr) volcanic center in the Anahim volcanic belt. Within 25 hr, eight earthquakes of magnitude 2.3-2.9 occurred in a region where no earthquakes had previously been recorded. During the next three weeks, more than 800 microearthquakes were located (and many more detected), most at a depth of 25-31 km and within a radius of about 5 km. After about two months, almost all activity ceased. The clear P- and S-wave arrivals indicated that these were high-frequency (volcanic-tectonic) earthquakes and the b value of 1.9 that we calculated is anomalous for crustal earthquakes but consistent with volcanic-related events. Analysis of receiver functions at a station immediately above the seismicity indicated a Moho near 30 km depth. Precise relocation of the seismicity using a double-difference method suggested a horizontal migration at the rate of about Graphic, with almost all events within the lowermost crust. Neither harmonic tremor nor long-period events were observed; however, some spasmodic bursts were recorded and determined to be colocated with the earthquake hypocenters. These observations are all very similar to a deep earthquake sequence recorded beneath Lake Tahoe, California, in 2003-2004. Based on these remarkable similarities, we interpret the Nazko sequence as an indication of an injection of magma into the lower crust beneath the Anahim volcanic belt. This magma injection fractures rock, producing high-frequency, volcanic-tectonic earthquakes and spasmodic bursts.

The increase of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus(MRSA) and the presence of an unusual sequence type ST49 in slaughter pigs in Switzerland

BackgroundIn years past, methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) has been frequently detected in pigs in Europe, North America and Asia. Recent, yet sporadic studies have revealed a low occurrence of MRSA in Switzerland. In 2009, a monitoring survey of the prevalence and genetic diversity of methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in slaughter pigs in Switzerland was conducted using methods recommended by the EU guidelines, and using a sampling strategy evenly distributed throughout the year and representative of the Swiss slaughter pig population. Monitoring should determine if the overall prevalence of MRSA in the entire country is increasing over the years and if specific multi-resistant MRSA clones are spreading over the country.ResultsIn 2009, the nasal cavities of eight out of 405 randomly selected pigs were positive for MRSA, representing a prevalence of 2.0% (95% CI 0.9-3.9). The following year, 23 out of 392 pigs were positive for MRSA [5.9% prevalence (95% CI 3.8-8.7)]. Three multilocus sequence types (ST), four spa types and two types of staphylococcal cassette chromosome mec (SCCmec) elements were detected. The most frequent genotypes were ST398 (MLST)-(spa)t034-V(SCCmec) (n = 18) and ST49-t208-V (n = 7), followed by ST398-t011-V (n = 4), ST398-t1451-V (n = 1), and ST1-t2279-IVc (n = 1). The isolates displayed resistance to ß-lactams [mecA, (31/31); blaZ, (19/31)]; tetracycline [tet(M), (31/31); tet(K), (30/31)] (n = 31); macrolides and lincosamides [erm(C) (4/31) or erm(A) (18/31)] (n = 22); tiamulin [vga(A)v (9/31) or unknown mechanism (18/31)] (n = 27); trimethoprim [dfr(G) (18/31); spectinomycin [ant(9)-Ia (19/31) or unknown mechanism (3/31)] (n = 22); streptomycin [str (19/31)]; sulphamethoxazole (7/31) and ciprofloxacin (n = 1) (mechanisms not determined).ConclusionsThis study is the first to describe the presence of MRSA ST49 in slaughter pigs, and to demonstrate a significant and nearly three-fold increase of MRSA prevalence in pigs within two years. The presence of a specific clonal lineage of MRSA from Switzerland suggests that it has been selected in Swiss pig husbandry. Effective hygiene measures should be enhanced within the entire pig production chain to suppress the spread of these pathogens into the community.

Stress changes and aftershock distribution of the 1994 and 2006 Java subduction zone earthquake sequences

[1] The Mw = 7.8 1994 and the Mw = 7.7 2006 interplate thrust mechanism earthquakes that occurred in the Java subduction zone produced dominantly normal-faulting aftershocks, unusual for large megathrust main shocks. Various models proposed for these earthquake sequences invoke main shock rupture on an isolated portion of a decoupled plate boundary fault, with updip and outer-rise extension leading to the normal faulting. Other models suggest that these aftershocks occurred in a zone of the subduction zone where usually earthquakes cannot propagate or initiate, leading to the occurrence of normal-faulting aftershocks in the outer rise, overriding and subducting plates. Here we examine a simpler possibility, one in which Coulomb stress changes (ΔCFS) imparted by slip during the two large subduction events led to normal-faulting events on favorably oriented planes within the slab and near trench region of the subduction zone. We compute stress changes resulting from both events and subsequent large aftershocks using both uniform and variable slip models for main shock slip, resolved onto both aftershock nodal planes. We find that there is not a clear pattern of aftershock occurrence in areas of stress increase due to main shock slip. This implies that these aftershocks are not simply triggered by the static stress changes from the main shock and additional complexity should be considered to explain these unusual earthquake sequences.

Unusual Elution Sequence of Rare Earth Elements (REE) in Some Ion Chromatographic Systems and the Effect of Temperature

Ion chromatographic separation of rare earth elements (REE) was studied using isocratic elution from Dionex Ion Pac CS3 + CG3 column with sulfonic acid functional groups and buffered solutions of tartaric (HTart), citric (HCit) and nitrilotriacetic (NTA) acids, respectively, at temperatures 25–70°C. Apparent atomic numbers (App.At.No.) of Y and Sc with respect to lanthanide series were established and found to vary widely both with the ion exchange system and with temperature. A novel method for the separation of Dy-Y-Tb triad was proposed using 68 m mol L−1 HCit, pH = 3.18 at T = 60°C and its capability to be used for analytical determinations was demonstrated. The significance of contribution of longitudinal diffusion in the stationary phase to total zone spreading in the systems studied was emphasized.

Clinical Problem-Solving: Three Rare Conditions-One Pediatric Surgical Patient

The purpose of this report is to demonstrate a step-by-step process of clinical decision making. A case study is presented in stages to simulate the way such information emerges in clinical practice. The focus is on the diagnostic process of this pediatric surgical patient's presentation, with particular attention to the unusual sequence of events and the diagnostic dilemmas that emerged for the clinicians involved. This case also represents three very rare conditions related to the same patient that have never been presented in the literature occurring in combination or in relationship to one another.

Effect of Unexpected Sequence Interruptions to Conventional PCR and Repeat Primed PCR in Myotonic Dystrophy Type 1 Testing

Myotonic dystrophy type 1 (DM1) is caused by expansion of the CTG trinucleotide repeat in the DMPK gene. Our study focuses on the effect of recently described unusual sequence interruptions inside the CTG tract on conventional polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and triplet repeat primed PCR (TP-PCR) amplifications, which are the methods now widely used in molecular testing for DM1. For molecular characterization of the CTG repeat tract, we used conventional fluorescent PCR with bidirectional labeling and both forward and reverse direction TP-PCR. Though the results of the methods are still unambiguous for most alleles, mistyping and false results may occur in the typing of some unordinary alleles carrying sequence interruptions. The presence of these interruptions may lead not only to altered TP-PCR profiles, as can be expected, but also to abnormal electrophoretic mobility of complementary strands produced by conventional amplification of such alleles. Our findings suggest that the simultaneous combination of bidirectionally labeled conventional PCR with TP-PCR performed in both directions may be necessary for increasing the reliability and accuracy of the TP-PCR-based assay for DM1 testing.

Divergent Reaction Pathways of a Cationic Intermediate: Rearrangement and Cyclization of 2-Substituted Furyl and Benzofuryl Enones Catalyzed by Iridium(III)

In contrast to 2-substituted pyrrole enones, furyl and benzofuryl enones do not undergo the Nazarov electrocyclization. Instead, these furyl and benzofuryl enones exhibit unusual rearrangement sequences in the presence of catalytic amounts of [IrBr(CO)(DIM)((R)-(+)-BINAP)](SbF(6))(2) (1; DIM = diethylisopropylidene malonate) and AgSbF(6) (1:1). A 1,2-H shift followed by intramolecular Friedel-Crafts alkylation leads to synthetically valuable cyclohexanones with furanylic quaternary centers. The electrophilicity of 1 is essential for this rearrangement.

Dynamic Combinatorial Donor−Acceptor Catenanes in Water: Access to Unconventional and Unexpected Structures

We describe here the assembly of new types of donor-acceptor [2]catenanes from dynamic combinatorial libraries (DCL) in water. These new catenanes contain both the donor and acceptor components in at least one of the interlocked rings, thereby possessing unusual and unexpected DAAD or DADD stacking sequences of the π units in their structures. The efficiency of the catenane assembly process can be enhanced by manipulating the DCL equilibrium in a variety of ways: adding a guest, changing the building block stoichiometries, or increasing the library concentration or the ionic strength of the solvent. The formation of catenanes and their constitutions are found to be dependent on subtle differences in the geometry, dimension, and flexibility of the donor building blocks.

The Changing Monastic Cloister: Excavations in the South Range of Bordesley Abbey

Excavations in the south range of the cloister of Bordesley Abbey have produced an unusual sequence. The construction scheme of the buildings to the south of the cloister arcade—centring on the refectory and kitchen—was piecemeal and took over two hundred years, from the later twelfth to early sixteenth centuries. At an early stage the range included timber (which may have been part of the original temporary structures) and stone buildings. In the fifteenth century there was a major change of use: the refectory became a workshop and dumping area while the kitchen was used for non-ferrous metalworking: these activities probably continued to the Dissolution. The implications of the excavations are considered in the context of the development of the cloister and then the precinct. The important evidence for adaptation and innovation is discussed in the light of work elsewhere in order to argue that the results have a relevance for other Cistercian houses and monasteries in general.

Tectonic movements monitored in the Bohemian Massif

This paper provides evidence for recent geodynamic activity within the Sudeten and Krušné Hory Mts. Fault Zones of the Bohemian Massif, Central Europe. Data were recorded using crack gauges and tiltmeters located on specific geological structures within caves and galleries. These data are supported by rangefinder, seismic, and groundwater observations. It is shown that a significant pressure phenomenon, here termed a pressure pulse, occurred during 2003. The pressure pulse initiated a series of tectonic deformations. In the Krušné Hory Mts., the pulse was preceded by chaotic tilt movements followed by significant tilt reorientation. Several stages of the deformation process were determined, analysed, and described. These stages represent stability, relaxation, compression, compaction, and later relaxation. The pressure pulse itself was associated with the compressional stage. Moderate, but regionally significant, earthquakes occurred during the later stages of the deformation process. This precludes the idea that they might be responsible for the initiating the recognised movements. At the same time, an unusual sequence of earthquake micro-swarms occurred in West Bohemia. These events should all be seen as the result of tectonic deformation initiated by the pressure pulse. Supplementary data indicate an affinity between the deformation process and large global disturbance within the Earth's crust ( Stemberk et al., 2010).

Expression, tandem repeat copy number variation and stability of four macrosatellite arrays in the human genome

BackgroundMacrosatellites are some of the largest variable number tandem repeats in the human genome, but what role these unusual sequences perform is unknown. Their importance to human health is clearly demonstrated by the 4q35 macrosatellite D4Z4 that is associated with the onset of the muscle degenerative disease facioscapulohumeral muscular dystrophy. Nevertheless, many other macrosatellite arrays in the human genome remain poorly characterized.ResultsHere we describe the organization, tandem repeat copy number variation, transmission stability and expression of four macrosatellite arrays in the human genome: the TAF11-Like array located on chromosomes 5p15.1, the SST1 arrays on 4q28.3 and 19q13.12, the PRR20 array located on chromosome 13q21.1, and the ZAV array at 9q32. All are polymorphic macrosatellite arrays that at least for TAF11-Like and SST1 show evidence of meiotic instability. With the exception of the SST1 array that is ubiquitously expressed, all are expressed at high levels in the testis and to a lesser extent in the brain.ConclusionsOur results extend the number of characterized macrosatellite arrays in the human genome and provide the foundation for formulation of hypotheses to begin assessing their functional role in the human genome.

CiMT‐1, an unusual chordate metallothionein gene in Ciona intestinalis genome: structure and expression studies

The present article reports on the characterization of the urochordate metallothionein (MT) gene, CiMT-1, from the solitary ascidian Ciona intestinalis. The predicted protein is shorter than other known deuterostome MTs, having only 39 amino acids. The gene has the same tripartite structure as vertebrate MTs, with some features resembling those of echinoderm MTs. The promoter region shows the canonical cis-acting elements recognized by transcription factors that respond to metal, ROS, and cytokines. Unusual sequences, described in fish and echinoderms, are also present. In situ hybridization suggests that only a population of hemocytes involved in immune responses, i.e. granular amebocytes, express CiMT-1 mRNA. These observations support the idea that urochordates perform detoxification through hemocytes, and that MTs may play important roles in inflammatory humoral responses in tunicates. The reported data offer new clues for better understanding the evolution of these multivalent proteins from non-vertebrate to vertebrate chordates and reinforce their functions in detoxification and immunity.