Unsaturated State Research Articles

Characterising the permanent deformation of subgrade soils under seasonal variation

Rutting, a prevalent failure mode in flexible pavements, largely stems from subgrade issues. Despite this, there is a lack of standard protocols to evaluate subgrade rutting or permanent deformation (PD). This study attempted to characterise PD in subgrades, focusing on a poorly graded sand and two silty sands. Moisture contents above and below optimum levels were considered to account for seasonal variations. The research involved adapting a test to assess the PD by determining typical stresses on the subgrade. Moreover, given these soils' unsaturated state and medium- to fine-grained nature, suction is an important factor. Suction-controlled multi-stage Repeated Load Triaxial tests were conducted, and the results were fitted by a PD model modified to account for suction. The characterisation was compared with the subgrade strain criterion used in pavement design solutions. Results indicated discrepancies between the PD characterisation and strain criteria predictions, with the silty sands performing better than the poorly graded sand, consistent with the shakedown theory.

Controllable syntheses and magnetic and photoelectric properties modulations of CuFeS2 nanoplates

As an antiferromagnetic material, chalcopyrite CuFeS2 has both magnetic and semiconductor properties, which brings great prospects for the application of spintronics devices. Here, chalcopyrite CuFeS2 nanoplates were successfully synthesized through a template mediated method. The CuFeS2 exhibits a tetragonal phase while largely maintaining the hexagonal morphology of the CuS template, with particle sizes ranging between 90 and 120 nm. Specifically, the magnetic properties of CuFeS2 can be tuned by varying the Fe content. The strong room-temperature ferromagnetism is attributed to the coexistence of the ferromagnetic Fe7S8 and the antiferromagnetic CuFeS2, as well as to the unsaturated spin states of Fe on the surfaces of the nanoplates. Furthermore, the photoresponses of CuFeS2 nanoplates were confirmed by I-V measurements under dark and light illumination. The stable photoresponse capability is attributed to its semiconductor properties. This novel room-temperature ferromagnetism and photoelectric effect promotes the development of CuFeS2 nanoplates, and has great significance for the synthetic pathways of other ternary magnetic compounds.

Shear mechanical behavior and fracturing path of red sandstone treated by joninted effect of water-fractures

Water content and primary fractures can change the mechanical characteristics of rock, making it easy to induce geological disasters. Therefore, direct shear tests of red sandstone under the action of water-fracture were carried out in this paper. The results show that shear strength of rock samples with fractures is less than that of intact rock samples. With the increase of primary fracture dip angle, shear strength and macroscopic crushing area of the rock sample increases first and then decreases with 20° as the boundary. It shows that the primary fractures weaken the shear mechanical properties and change the macroscopic failure mode. The shear performance of water-bearing rock samples is weaker than that of intact rock samples, and the weakening degree of water-saturated on shear performance of rock samples is lower than that of unsaturated water state. The fracture surfaces of rock samples are divided into 'shortest path single through type', 'longest path single through type' and 'cross path through type'. The failured rock samples are divided into 'single through type' and 'cross through type'. The research results can provide reference for geological disaster management under relevant conditions.

Study of freeze-thaw deterioration of saturated and unsaturated hydraulic concrete based on measured strain

In actual concrete water projects, areas such as the back surface, above-water surface, and even areas where the water level fluctuates are in the unsaturated freeze-thaw state. The complexity of freeze-thaw tests of unsaturated hydraulic concrete has thus far prevented a sound understanding of the mechanisms at work in freeze-thaw deterioration of unsaturated hydraulic concrete. Given this situation, this study first compares three different unsaturated hydraulic concrete freeze-thaw test processes (polyurea seal, paraffin seal, and vacuum-bag seal) and then uses the vacuum-bag seal method to implement freeze-thaw tests of unsaturated hydraulic concrete. Afterward, three test schemes (unsaturated sealed freeze-thaw, water-freeze-thaw without air-entraining agent, and water-freeze-thaw with air-entraining agents) are conducted and the mechanisms of freeze-thaw deterioration of saturated and unsaturated hydraulic concrete are evaluated based on the measured temperature and strain of the concrete specimens. The results reveal a continuous and irreversible deterioration leading to the freeze-thaw damage of unsaturated sealed freeze-thaw specimens and water-freeze-thaw specimens with and without an air-entraining agent. After 200 freeze-thaw cycles, the cumulative residual strain of the aforementioned three test schemes reach 47 με, 616 με, and 273 με, respectively. The thermal expansion coefficient of concrete remains relatively constant with increasing freeze-thaw cycles. Water-freeze-thaw specimens without air-entraining agents have a greater thermal expansion coefficient than those with air-entraining agents, and unsaturated sealed freeze-thaw specimens have the smallest thermal expansion coefficient. The frost heave coefficient increases with increasing freeze-thaw cycles, and water-freeze-thaw specimens without air-entraining agents have greater frost heave coefficients than those with air-entraining agents.

Swelling pressure of phyllite residual soil during saturation

Phyllite residual soil is a typical regional soil formed from the weathering of phyllite rock formations, characterized by poor engineering properties. The swelling pressure could pose a threat to roadbed stability and other geological engineering disasters during the rainy season. Therefore, studying the swelling pressure of phyllite residual soil is critical for ensuring the sustainable development of both human society and the natural environment. In this study, a series of swelling pressure tests were conducted on the phyllite residual soil to determine its swelling pressure, and nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) test was applied to assess the evolution of soil fabric in both the initial unsaturated state and saturated state. The results indicate that the swelling rate of phyllite residual soil is negatively correlated with the initial water content and positively correlates with the dry density. The denser or drier the phyllite residual soil is in its initial state, the higher the equilibrium swelling pressure will be. The analysis of T2 distribution curves reveals that during the wetting process in phyllite residual soil, water fills micropores prior to macropores until water fills up all pores.

Releasing characteristics of toxic chemicals from polystyrene microplastics in the aqueous environment during photoaging process

Microplastics (MPs) are pervasive in the environment and inevitably undergo photoaging due to UV irradiation. This study delved into the dynamic releasing and transformation process of toxic chemicals from polystyrene microplastics (PS MPs) during photoaging, a subject that remains underexplored. It was revealed that photoaging led to substantial alterations in the physicochemical properties of PS MPs, initiating polymer chain scission and facilitating the release of a large number of toxic chemicals, including numerous organic compounds and several inorganic compounds. The kinetic analysis revealed a dynamic release pattern for PS MPs, where under varying UV intensities (2, 5, and 10 mW/cm2), the release rate (kDOC) initially increased and then decreased, peaking at a total irradiation energy of approximately 7 kW·h/m2. Furthermore, chemicals in leachate were transformed into compounds with smaller molecular weight, higher oxidized and greater unsaturated state over the prolonged photoaging. This transformation was primarily attributed to two reasons. Firstly, the aged PS MPs released chemicals with higher oxidized state compared to the pristine MPs. Secondly, the chemicals previously released underwent further reactions. Besides, among the complex leachate generated by aged PS MPs, the organic chemicals characterized by small molecular weight and high oxidized state exhibited notable acute toxicity, whereas heavy metal ions showed lesser toxicity, and anions were non-toxic. This study shed more light on the photoaging process of PS MPs, releasing characteristics of organic chemicals, and the potential environmental risks associated with plastic wastes.

Size-Dependent Catalysis in Fenton-like Chemistry: From Nanoparticles to Single Atoms.

State-of-the-art Fenton-like reactions are crucial in advanced oxidation processes (AOPs) for water purification. This review explores the latest advancements in heterogeneous metal-based catalysts within AOPs, covering nanoparticles (NPs), single-atom catalysts (SACs), and ultra-small atom clusters. A distinct connection between the physical properties of these catalysts, such as size, degree of unsaturation, electronic structure, and oxidation state, and their impacts on catalytic behavior and efficacy in Fenton-like reactions. In-depth comparative analysis of metal NPs and SACs is conducted focusing on how particle size variations and metal-support interactions affect oxidation species and pathways. The review highlights the cutting-edge characterization techniques and theoretical calculations, indispensable for deciphering the complex electronic and structural characteristics of active sites in downsized metal particles. Additionally, the review underscores innovative strategies for immobilizing these catalysts onto membrane surfaces, offering a solution to the inherent challenges of powdered catalysts. Recent advances in pilot-scale or engineering applications of Fenton-like-based devices are also summarized for the first time. The paper concludes by charting new research directions, emphasizing advanced catalyst design, precise identification of reactive oxygen species, and in-depth mechanistic studies. These efforts aim to enhance the application potential of nanotechnology-based AOPs in real-world wastewater treatment.

A new method for rapid preparing high-strength saturated clay samples in large-scale model tests

The preparation of high-strength saturated clay samples for large-scale model tests presents a significant challenge in geotechnical engineering. The slurry consolidation method has been conventionally employed to prepare saturated clay, despite its time-consuming and labor-intensive nature. Therefore, this study proposes a rapid preparation technique for clayey soils utilizing the dynamic compaction method, enabling the facile preparation of saturated clay samples by compacting the soils from an unsaturated state. During compaction, the void ratio decreases, thereby increasing the degree of saturation and enhancing the soil strength. Critical to this method are two variables: the moisture water content and the soil density, which are determined through bench-scale compaction tests using the Proctor compaction test apparatus. These tests establish the relationships between moisture content and density, degree of saturation, and soil strength. The moisture content aligning with the target soil strength is selected as the target moisture content for model-scale soil preparation, whereas the moisture content-density relationship sets the target density value. The laboratory tests validate that the soil strength of the saturated model-size clay samples prepared using the proposed method fulfills the requisite criteria, indicating its effectiveness for rapid preparation of high-strength saturated clay samples in large-scale model tests.

Bearing characteristics of a model piled raft foundation in unsaturated soil subjected to variations in the groundwater level

The bearing characteristics of a piled raft foundation (PRF) in saturated or dry soil ground have been investigated in previous studies. However, soils near the ground surface are generally in an unsaturated state. Matric suction occurs in unsaturated soils and influences the mechanical properties of soil. For more reasonable designs of PRFs, it is undoubtedly necessary to study the bearing characteristics of PRFs in unsaturated soil. In this study, model tests were conducted to investigate the bearing characteristics of a PRF in unsaturated soil subjected to variations in the groundwater level. The experimental results showed that, when the groundwater level was increased and the suction decreased, the load carried by the raft increased under dead load, leading to a significant settlement of the model PRF.

New anti‐windup Proportional‐Integral‐Derivative for motor speed control

AbstractThe proportional‐integral‐derivative (PID) was developed and recognized for its reliability. A PID controller is not only simple but also relatively cheap. However, the controller causes system performance degeneration over time due to the presence of windup in a motor speed control system. The windup phenomenon is caused by the saturated control state. Various anti‐windup methods were introduced to decrease a system's long settling time and extreme overshooting. Most anti‐windup techniques require integral switching between saturated and unsaturated states, whereby both versions of steady‐state integral proportional‐integral controller do not need integral switching mechanism. They possess a certain degree of decoupling between and tuning parameters and tested to allow a more comprehensive range of tuning in the absence of derivative control. This research investigated the impact of derivative control component on the tuning gain decoupling through hardware simulation. By integrating the derivative component, , the control system demonstrated an improved system stability and reduced overshoot. Result shows that the decoupling feature allows SIPIC01+D and SIPIC02+D controllers to produce performance with zero overshoot and short settling time. However, SIPIC01+D has better dynamical performance with fastest rise and settling time with no overshoot as compared to other anti‐windup controllers.

The migration process and temperature effect of aqueous solutions contaminated by heavy metal ions in unsaturated silty soils

Adsorption-desorption experiments of three heavy metal ions (i.e., lead, copper, cadmium) in silty soil were carried out at different temperatures, and the microscopic characteristics of silty soil loaded with the three heavy metal ions were analyzed. A one-dimensional soil column was used to discuss the influences of heavy metal ion types and concentrations on the soil moisture distribution and the migration level of different heavy metal ions, especially during the dynamic change process from an unsaturated state to a saturated state. Studies show that the adsorption of heavy metal ions onto silty soil is closely related to the mineral composition and functional groups in silty soil. In addition to physical adsorption, the adsorption of heavy metal ions is closely related to the hydrolysis reaction of mineral components such as kaolinite, calcite, dolomite, plagioclase and quartz. Under constant temperature, the types and concentrations of heavy metal ions play an important role in the moisture migration of unsaturated soil. In the presence of heavy metal ions, the penetration of lead ions is the greatest, followed by copper ions and then cadmium ions. The greater the ion concentration is, the stronger the penetration of heavy metal ions in silty soils.

Axially Modified Square-Pyramidal CoN4-F1 Sites Enabling High-Performance Zn-Air Batteries.

Cobalt-nitrogen-carbon (Co-N-C) catalysts with a CoN4 structure exhibit great potential for oxygen reduction reaction (ORR), but the imperfect adsorption energy toward oxygen species greatly limits their reduction efficiency and practical application potential. Here, F-coordinated Co-N-C catalysts with square-pyramidal CoN4-F1 configuration are successfully synthesized using F atoms to regulate the axial coordination of Co centers via hydrothermal and chemical vapor deposition methods. During the synthesis process, the geometry structure of the Co atom converts from six-coordinated Co-F6 to square-pyramidal CoN4-F1 in the coordinatively unsaturated state, which provides an open binding site for the O2. The introduction of axial F atoms into the CoN4 plane alters the local atomic environment around Co, significantly improving the ORR activity and Zn-air batteries performance. In situ spectroscopy proves that CoN4-F1 sites strongly combine with the OOH* intermediate and facilitate the splitting of O-O bond, making OOH* readily decompose into O* and OH* via a dissociative pathway. Theoretical calculations confirm that the axial F atom effectively reduces the electronic density of the Co centers and facilitates the desorption of the OH* intermediate, efficiently accelerating the overall ORR kinetics. This work advances a feasible synthesis mechanism of axial ligands and provides a route to construct efficient high-coordination catalysts.

Real-Time Detection Method for Saturation Speed of Air-Core Coil Current Transformer

Traditional methods generally rely on a fixed threshold to determine whether the current transformer is saturated. However, this threshold based judgment method is difficult to adapt to different working conditions and changes in current waveforms. In view of the different characteristics of current transformer and the diversity of working environment, it may not be accurate to judge its saturation state only by relying on a fixed threshold. In order to improve the efficiency of current transformer speed saturation detection and reduce the error, a new type of air core coil current transformer speed saturation real-time detection method is proposed. Based on the working and current characteristics of the fast saturation current transformer, the discrete Fourier algorithm is used to suppress power frequency interference signals, with the fundamental frequencies set to 45 Hz and 55 Hz respectively, in order to separate the signal from power frequency interference and reduce the interference intensity of the power frequency interference signal; Identify all faults and saturation points, and extract effective data segments. The wavelet transform characteristics of the secondary current waveform of current transformer in saturated and unsaturated states are deeply studied. By analyzing the changes of different operating conditions and current waveforms, more discriminant features are extracted by using the characteristics of wavelet transform, so as to realize the real-time and accurate detection of saturation state. The results indicate that after adopting the proposed method, the highest accuracy of data segment extraction reached 97%; The maximum detection error is only 4%. The detection time is only 1.31 s. This indicates that the proposed method improves the detection performance and is practical.

A novel approach for quantifying upper reservoir leakage

During the operational phases of the upper reservoir in a pumped storage power station, the water level, leakage area, and hydraulic gradient of the upper reservoir alter dynamically due to the cyclic pumping and draining activities. The rising groundwater level during storage introduces distinct leakage conditions within the reservoir basin, characterized by unsaturated, partially saturated, and saturated states. Consequently, reservoir basin leakage exhibits variability across these states. To address this issue, this study formulated rational assumptions corresponding to the three leakage states in a reservoir basin and derived analytical expressions for seepage calculation based on Darcy's law and the principles governing groundwater flow refraction. A case study was conducted to investigate the relationship between various factors and leakage. The results showed that leakage primarily depended on the permeability of the impermeable layer in the reservoir basin. The upper reservoir leakage was estimated, and the calculated leakage generally agreed with the measurements, offering insights into the leakage mechanism of the Liyang pumped storage power station. In addition, the reasons for disparities between measured and calculated leakage were analyzed, and the reliability of the developed method was validated. The findings of this study provide a foundation for the seepage control design of upstream reservoirs in similar projects.

Resilient Modulus Prediction Model of Subbase Materials in Unsaturated State

Resilient Modulus Prediction Model of Subbase Materials in Unsaturated State

A triple‐microstructure hydro‐mechanical constitutive damage model for compacted MX80 bentonite pellet/powder mixture

AbstractA triple‐microstructure hydro‐mechanical constitutive damage model was proposed to describe the hydro‐mechanical behaviour of MX80 bentonite pellet/powder mixture, based on the results from a series of suction‐controlled oedometer tests and microstructure observations. Emphasis was put on the pellet damage behaviour. The model parameters were determined essentially based on these results. The model response was firstly verified with the obtained oedometer tests. Then, the results of Molinero‐Guerra et al. and Darde who carried out suction‐controlled oedometer tests and swelling pressure tests on similar bentonite pellet/powder mixture were employed to validate the proposed model. It appeared that the global volume behaviour and the development of swelling pressure with suction of the bentonite mixture could be well reproduced. The model allowed gaining insights into the microstructural evolutions under oedometer loading. The global compression behaviour was governed by the filling of inter‐grain pores at unsaturated state, but by the compression of grains themselves at saturated state. Conversely, when wetted under constant‐volume condition, inter‐grain pores and intra‐grain macro‐pores were closed, by the swelling of intra‐grain micro‐pores. Examination of the water‐retention property showed that water saturated the intra‐grain micro‐pores at suction 19 MPa, and then started filling intra‐grain macro‐pores. When inter‐grain pores and intra‐grain macro‐pores were all closed at suction 0.1 MPa, water finally came back to intra‐grain micro‐pores. On the whole, the hydro‐mechanical behaviour of the bentonite pellet/powder mixture can be well described by the proposed model.

A hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian approach for non-self-similar expansion analysis of a cylindrical cavity in saturated and unsaturated critical state soils

AbstractThis paper proposes a powerful hybrid Eulerian–Lagrangian (HEL) approach for the analysis of cavity expansion problems. The new approach is applied to analysing the non-self-similar expansion process of a hollow cylinder of critical state soils, considering arbitrary saturation states of soils and both drained and undrained conditions. A closed-form solution for the stresses and displacements in the elastic zone is presented, taking the state-dependent soil moduli and outer boundary effect of the soil cylinder into account. Adopting large strain theory in the plastic zone, the non-self-similar cavity expansion process is formulated into a set of partial differential equations in terms of both Eulerian and Lagrangian descriptions, which is solved by a newly proposed algorithm. The HEL approach is compared with the conventional Eulerian and Lagrangian approaches for the cavity expansion analyses. It is found that the new approach can reduce to the Eulerian approach when the self-similar assumption is satisfied and to the Lagrangian approach when stress–total strain relationships are obtained analytically. Finally, the expansion process is proven to be non-self-similar by showing the stress and deformation paths, and the finite thickness of soil cylinders may greatly influence the cavity expansion behaviour, especially with a small thickness ratio. The HEL approach can provide useful tools for validating advanced numerical techniques for both saturated and unsaturated soils and interpreting pressuremeter tests in small-size calibration chambers.

Mechanisms Underlying the Overturning Failure of Terraced Field Side Walls Due to Expansive Soil Swelling During Layer‐By‐Layer Saturation

The stability of side walls in terraced fields constructed within expansive soil regions represents a critical challenge, often leading to structural failure due to the unique wetting–swelling behavior of the soil. This study employs a comprehensive approach, integrating analytical and numerical methods to elucidate the mechanism of overturning failure attributed to the swelling effect of expansive soil under conditions of layer‐by‐layer saturation. Initially, the earth pressure acting on side walls, constructed from fiber ecological bags, is assessed in their natural, unsaturated state using Bishop’s formula for unsaturated shear strength. The study further explores the failure mode through one‐dimensional analytical analysis, focusing on the horizontal and unrestrained expansion of expansive soil during progressive saturation. Subsequently, the deformation of the side wall and the swelling effect of the soil are numerically evaluated. This is achieved by analogizing the wetting–swelling deformation field in expansive soil to an equivalent temperature field, thereby facilitating the use of finite element numerical simulation to investigate the overturning failure mechanism. Findings indicate that in the natural unsaturated state, the side walls remain stable under no earth pressure. However, as saturation depth attains a critical depth of 1.4 m during layer‐by‐layer saturation, the upper wall rotates outward in the form of local overturning failure, and the corresponding infiltration saturation depth is the critical depth for the local instability of the side wall. The investigation identifies the wetting–swelling effect as the predominant factor leading to the structural failure of side walls in terraced fields situated in expansive soil areas. Moreover, a critical infiltration saturation depth of 2.6 m is determined, beyond which the stability of the side walls is compromised. This research contributes significantly to the understanding of the failure mechanisms affecting terraced agricultural infrastructures in expansive soil regions, offering a theoretical foundation for the development of more resilient construction strategies.

Investigation of coated hydrophobic granular materials by means of computed tomography and environmental scanning electron microscopy

Hydrophobic materials in geotechnical engineering and soil science can have natural or artificial origin. They can be applied, e. g., to waterproof structures in the industry. In this contribution, hydrophobic granular material was manufactured through a cold plasma polymer coating procedure. The monomer used was C4F8 (octafluorocyclobutane) and the material to be coated was Hamburg sand, a coarse grained sand. In this context, computed microtomography and environmental scanning electron microscopy were used to investigate the materials in their unsaturated state. The tools are applied to visualize unsaturated phenomena on the microscale. The hydrophobic and untreated materials were imaged by both techniques at different saturation degrees in order to understand the influence of the coating on the sample’s hydraulic behaviour. The chosen environmental scanning electron microscope is able to provide relative humidity in the sample chamber, and so water drops were condensed on the grain surface, allowing to also observe the initial contact of water and the hydrophobic coating. It was observed how the capillary menisci, their geometry and contact properties evolve at different degrees of saturation. The measurements obtained and respective analyses state qualitatively the influence of the hydrophobic coatings on the pore water dynamics at different saturation degrees, which dictates the material’s hydraulic behaviour. Contact angles were also analysed were it was physically possible.

Investigation on the effect of intermediate principal stress on shear behaviour of unsaturated soils

Directional-dependent properties of the soil, like shear strength, stiffness and hydraulic conductivity, are known as anisotropy in soils. Shape and size of the soil particles and void distribution as microstructure characteristics and external factors such as stress history, environmental and geological conditions, and present stress condition can be the causes of the anisotropy in soils. In this paper, the behaviour of soil has been studied in stress-strain plain under monotonic anisotropic loading to investigate the effect of induced anisotropy on brittleness index of soil sample. The brittleness index of the soil is defined as the difference between the ultimate and peak shear strength divided by the peak shear strength of the soil. The two major parameters describing induced anisotropy or anisotropic loading are intermediate principal stress (b) and principal stress direction (α) which are representative of the difference between intermediate, maximum and minimum principal stresses and the rotation angle of the principal stresses’ axis, respectively. This paper only takes the effect of intermediate principal stress with the values of 0.25, 0.5, 0.75. In addition, the soil is in the unsaturated state with the saturation degree of 80% using the constant water (C.W.) method.