Unrewarding Experience Research Articles

Adapting to My User, Engaging with My Robot: An Adaptive Affective Architecture for a Social Assistive Robot

Affective feedback from social robots is a useful technique for communicating to people whether they are interacting “well” with the robot or not. However, some users, such as people with physical or cognitive difficulties, may not be able to interact in all the desired ways. In these cases, affective feedback from the robot could be excessively negative—an “unhappy” robot, leading to an unrewarding experience for the user. This paper presents a motivation-based architecture for an autonomous multimodal social robot, that incorporates an affective feedback mechanism which generates an affective state by combining the internal needs of the robot and the social interaction quality. The balance between these two factors can dynamically change, allowing the robot to adapt its affective feedback to the user’s interaction style and capabilities. We have implemented this architecture in a simulation and in a MiRo social robot, and report experiments examining the behavior of the system in interactions with different experimental user profiles. The results show that the adaptive mechanism allows the robot to change its affective feedback to give more positive encouragement to users than in non-adaptive cases.

Memory extinction and spontaneous recovery shaping parasitoid foraging behavior.

Animals can alter their foraging behavior through associative learning, where an encounter with an essential resource (e.g., food or a reproductive opportunity) is associated with nearby environmental cues (e.g., volatiles). This can subsequently improve the animal’s foraging efficiency. However, when these associated cues are encountered again, the anticipated resource is not always present. Such an unrewarding experience, also called a memory-extinction experience, can change an animal’s response to the associated cues. Although some studies are available on the mechanisms of this process, they rarely focus on cues and rewards that are relevant in an animal’s natural habitat. In this study, we tested the effect of different types of ecologically relevant memory-extinction experiences on the conditioned plant volatile preferences of the parasitic wasp Cotesia glomerata that uses these cues to locate its caterpillar hosts. These extinction experiences consisted of contact with only host traces (frass and silk), contact with nonhost traces, or oviposition in a nonhost near host traces, on the conditioned plant species. Our results show that the lack of oviposition, after contacting host traces, led to the temporary alteration of the conditioned plant volatile preference in C. glomerata, but this effect was plant species-specific. These results provide novel insights into how ecologically relevant memory-extinction experiences can fine-tune an animal’s foraging behavior. This fine-tuning of learned behavior can be beneficial when the lack of finding a resource accurately predicts current, but not future foraging opportunities. Such continuous reevaluation of obtained information helps animals to prevent maladaptive foraging behavior.

Unrewarding experience with a novel environment modulates olfactory response in the host-searching behavior of parasitic wasps

Generalist insects, which utilize various food resources from various environments, must make decisions to locate resources using novel environmental sensory stimuli when they arrive in a new habitat. In addition to the innate response repertoire, such decision using novel stimuli can include an experience-based process. Here, we showed that the generalist parasitic wasp Aphidius gifuensis altered its olfactory responses after exposure to nonnatal habitat environments, i.e., host plants of aphids. In our laboratory experiments, overnight exposure of female wasps to nonnatal broad bean plants reduced their olfactory preference for uninfested bean plants and induced an olfactory preference for host-infested plants over uninfested plants of both broad bean and wheat. The decrease in olfactory preference for uninfested plants was not observed in wasps with overnight exposure to their natal wheat plants. In addition, the olfactory preference for uninfested wheat plants over uninfested bean plants was not observed without previous rewarding experience (oviposition) on the natal wheat plants prior to the overnight exposure to uninfested bean plants. These results suggest that a certain period of unrewarding experience (residency without host finding) on nonnatal plants promoted emigration from the unrewarded environment and increased the wasp’s response to olfactory cues from host-infested plants of both species. This study shows negative experience with uninfested plants plays a key role in host-searching behavior and habitat (host plant) selection in the wasp.

Interprofessional attitudes amongst undergraduate students in the health professions: A longitudinal questionnaire survey

Background Interprofessional education (IPE) introduced at the beginning of pre-registration training for healthcare professionals attempts to prevent the formation of negative interprofessional attitudes which may hamper future interprofessional collaboration. However, the potential for IPE depends, to some extent, on the readiness of healthcare students to learn together. Objectives To measure changes in readiness for interprofessional learning, professional identification, and amount of contact between students of different professional groups; and to examine the influence of professional group, student characteristics and an IPE course on these scores over time. Design Annual longitudinal panel questionnaire survey at four time-points of pre-registration students ( n = 1683) drawn from eight healthcare groups from three higher education institutions (HEIs) in the UK. Results The strength of professional identity in all professional groups was high on entry to university but it declined significantly over time for some disciplines. Similarly students’ readiness for interprofessional learning was high at entry but declined significantly over time for all groups, with the exception of nursing students. A small but significant positive relationship between professional identity and readiness for interprofessional learning was maintained over time. There was very minimal contact between students from different disciplines during their professional education programme. Students who reported gaining the least from an IPE course suffered the most dramatic drop in their readiness for interprofessional learning in the following and subsequent years; however, these students also had the lowest expectations of an IPE course on entry to their programme of study. Conclusion The findings provide support for introducing IPE at the start of the healthcare students’ professional education to capitalise on students’ readiness for interprofessional learning and professional identities, which appear to be well formed from the start. However, this study suggests that students who enter with negative attitudes towards interprofessional learning may gain the least from IPE courses and that an unrewarding experience of such courses may further reinforce their negative attitudes.

Associative learning and discrimination of 10 plant species by the egg-larval parasitoid, Ascogaster reticulata Watanabe (Hymenoptera: Braconidae)

The effects of associative learning of plant chemicals on host-searching behavior in Ascogaster reticulata Watanabe, an egg-larval parasitoid of the smaller tea tortrix, Adoxophyes honmai Yasuda, were investigated. Learned responses of conditioned and non-conditioned plant species were examined by a two-choice assay. Before the two-choice assays, females were given a rewarding oviposition experience or unrewarding experience on a leaf disc or leaf extract of either tea, camellia, sasanqua, bayberry, chinquapin, rose, Japanese cedar, fern pine, mulberry and corn. Following the experience, females were tested in a choice test between tea leaf and an alternative plant leaf. The results of the two-choice assays with leaf square discs were similar to tests using leaf extracts. Females that were conditioned with tea leaf showed a significant preference for tea leaf over the alternative plant species, except for leaves of the genus Camellia (camellia and sasanqua). Wasps conditioned with the other nine plant leaves only showed a significant preference for bayberry, mulberry, fern pine and corn. Females that had rewarding and unrewarding experiences were able to distinguish between tea and camellia. These results suggest that A. reticulata females are able to distinguish different plant species except for closely related species and some plant species; however, combinations with rewarding and unrewarding experiences enabled females to discriminate closely related species.

How can ‘problem subjects’ be made less of a problem?

Many higher education courses, across the whole range of disciplines, include subjects that are somewhat problematic because they appear to be unrelated to other components of the curriculum. Students frequently perceive them as irrelevant and boring. This makes it extremely difficult for lecturers to stimulate interest and results in an unrewarding experience for all concerned. Instead of seeing these ‘problem subjects’ as a challenge for experienced lecturers, they often serve as a ‘rite of passage’ with responsibility for teaching them being given to new lecturers. Arguably, such a response simply compounds the problem and results in lost opportunities for developing creative and imaginative approaches to addressing the disaffection of students. If the challenge is to be met, particular attention needs to be given to ways of establishing and demonstrating the relevance of ‘problem subjects’, with this being seen more as a collective than an individual responsibility.

Management of Raynaud's syndrome: our twenty-year experience

Purpose: 1) To review the long-term outcomes of a large group of patients who have undergone periarterial sympathectomy of the hand and 2) to describe the role of hand therapy in the evaluation and treatment of patients with Raynaud's syndrome. Method: We reviewed results on patients who had undergone periarterial sympathectomy (PAS) of the hand for recalcitrant ischemic pain, ulceration, and gangrene of digits from 1982 to the present. Data collection consisted of chart and operative review, and when possible follow-up telephone interview. Twenty-one (31 hands) had from two to 20 years of follow-up, ages at the time of initial procedure ranged from 21 to 87 years. Of these patients, three had suffered blunt trauma to the hand, four had mixed connective tissue disease, one had lupus, four had CREST (Calcinosis, Raynaud's phenomenon, esophageal involvement, sclerodactyly, and telangiectasia) or scleroderma, and the rest were idiopathic. Three main criteria—pain, ischemic ulceration, tissue loss (amputation)—were used to evaluate the success of treatment. We considered the initial procedure a success if the patient improved in one of the three main criteria. Patient satisfaction and changes in cold induced or Raynaud's attacks were also noted. The initial procedure was considered a failure if any of the criteria worsened or the patient required revision surgery or surgical amputation. When the result was rated as a failure, a critical review regarding the possible role of the surgical technique, disease progression, or both was considered. Not all Raynaud's syndrome patients require surgical intervention. A functional assessments algorithm aided our clinical decisionmaking regarding the choice of medical and/or surgical intervention. Evaluation baselines taken by the hand therapist included measurement of digital temperatures, cold recovery, tissue necrosis, sensibility, range of motion, and function. Repeat measures were used to evaluate the outcome of medical management or PAS. To complement medical management, the therapist discussed modification of risk factors, methods to reduce vasospastic episodes such as behavior and biofeedback techniques, and organized patient support groups. Results: Our first four patients had PAS of only the common volar vessels. To meet one of the three main criteria, all subsequent cases had PAS of the entire palmar arch, common volar digital arteries beyond the bifurcation into the digit, ulnar and radial artery. When necessary, vein grafts for arterial occlusion and primary amputation to the level of gangrenous tissue were performed. Conclusion: Treatment of severe digital ischemia can be a frustrating and unrewarding experience. In our 20-year experience we have found that a collaborative relationship between hand surgeon and hand therapist helps us to best serve our patients with Raynaud's syndrome. Information obtained in this organized approach aided our decisionmaking regarding medical and surgical management of this challenging group of patients.

Nursing with Prisoners: The Practice of Caring, Forensic Nursing or Penal Harm Nursing?

The number of incarcerated persons in the United States has been increasing dramatically over the last two decades. Incarcerated men and women have increased rates of serious and chronic physical and mental illnesses and therefore require substantial health care efforts. Caring for prisoners is a difficult and often unrewarding experience for health care providers, particularly within a social climate that encourages noncaring behaviors. This article critically analyzes three philosophic stances toward nursing care with prisoners and suggests their philosophic commensurability within traditional nursing practice. Implications for nursing practice, research, and education are discussed.

Novices entering mathematics 2: The graphic calculator and distance learners

For generations of students, learning mathematics has been a difficult and unrewarding experience. Electronic technology offers the opportunity to change the situation: it has made mathematics accessible—not just to a few gifted learners, but to the majority. In this paper we report a case study of how distance learners in an introductory college level mathematics course were able to learn concepts and develop their mathematical skills using a graphic calculator, and that they enjoyed their experience.

Unrewarding experiences and their effect on foraging in the parasitic waspLeptopilina heterotoma (Hymenoptera: Eucoilidae)

The host-foraging behavior of female entomophagous parasitoids is commonly modified by positive associative learning. Typically, a rewarding experience (e.g., successful oviposition in a host) increases a female's foraging effort in a host microhabitat of the type associated with that experience. Less well understood are the effects of unrewarding experiences (i.e., unsuccessful foraging). The influence of unrewarding experience on microhabitat choice and residence time within a microhabitat was examined for the eucoilid parasitoid,Leptopilina heterotoma, in laboratory and greenhouse assays. As determined previously, females which oviposited successfully in either of two microhabitat types (fermenting apple or decaying mushroom) strongly preferred to forage subsequently on that microhabitat type. However, failure to find hosts in the formerly rewarding microhabitat caused females to reverse their preference in favor of a novel microhabitat type. The effect, though striking, was transient: within 1–2 h, the original learned preference was nearly fully restored. Similar effects of unrewarding experiences were observed with respect to the length of time spent foraging in a microhabitat. As determined previously, oviposition experience in a particular microhabitat type increased the time spent foraging in a patch of that microhabitat type. However, failure to find hosts in the patch caused the time a wasp spent in the next unoccupied patch of that type to decrease to almost nothing. In addition, there was a tendency for an unrewarding experience on a formerly rewarding microhabitat type to extend the time spent in a patch of a novel type. The function of the observed effects of unrewarding experiences is discussed.

Push To Restructure Precollege Science Education Gets More Emphasis

Two observations point up what continues to be seen by scientists as a crucial need for major changes in precollege science education in the U.S. Viewing the current science education experience of many students, Johns Hopkins biology professor James D. Ebert says: 'In today's schools, science instruction during the elementary school years is infrequent and inconsistent. During the middle school years, a student's window to the natural world is typically a textbook accompanied by dreary worksheets. As a result, students enter high school thoroughly bored by science and give no thought to the subject beyond the required course, which more often than not affirms their expectations of an unrewarding experience. Not unrelated is the experience that many prospective precollege science teachers have with their college science education, of which Washington State University chemistry professor Glenn A. Crosby notes: Sitting in large lecture halls, listening to uninspiring lectures, and attending cookbook labor...