Unpuddled Soil Research Articles

Study on energy consumption of various rice establishment methods and water management practices in tank irrigated command area

Field experiments were conducted at Agricultural College and Research Institute, Tamil Nadu Agricultural University, Madurai, Tamil Nadu, India, during summer 2019 to find out energy efficient rice establishment methods under irrigation management strategy. Field experiment comprised of four establishment methods in main plot viz., conventional transplanting (M1), machine transplanting under puddled soil (M2), machine transplanting under unpuddled soil (M3) and sowing with seed drill (M4). The sub plot consisted of 4 irrigation management practices viz., farmers’ irrigation practice (continuous submergence of 5 cm throughout the crop period) (I1), Irrigation after formation of hairline crack (I2), irrigation when water level reaches 5 cm below soil surface (I3) and irrigation when water level reaches 10 cm below soil surface (I4). Medium duration fine grain rice variety TKM 13 was used for the study. Result of the study revealed that among the rice establishment methods higher energy output, net energy production, energy ratio and profitability was observed under machine transplanting under unpuddled soil. Among the irrigation management practices, irrigation after formation of hairline crack (I2) observed higher energy output and net energy production; whereas, energy ratio, energy productivity, energy intensity and B:C ratio were higher with irrigation when water level reaches 5 cm below soil surface (I3). This study concluded that machine transplanting under unpuddled soil combined with irrigation when water level reaches 5 cm below soil surface can be recommended as the suitable technology for the farmers of tank irrigated command area to get higher output energy with minimum use of input energy and also to obtain higher profit.

Techno-economic performance of mechanical transplanter for hybrid variety of rice in unpuddled soil

Unpuddled transplanting of rice as a part of conservation agricultural practice has become significant due to its protective behavior for soil properties and economic profitability. Mechanical transplanting in unpuddled soil using hybrid rice variety leads to a high yield with minimum transplanting time and cost, securing soil nutrients. A study was conducted in Bangladesh Agricultural University to evaluate the efficacy of mechanical transplanting of hybrid rice in unpuddled soil considering field and financial performances of rice transplanter. The experiment was conducted during Boro-2018 season with a Daedong DP-480 rice transplanter. Hybrid rice seed Moyna (HTM303) of Laal Teer seed company Ltd. was used for transplanting at a seed rate of 120g per tray and seedling per hill was adjusted to 2-3 nos. In unpuddled soil, transplanter possessed an effective field capacity, fuel consumption and efficiency of 0.16 ha/h, 4.8 l/ha and 67.48%, respectively. Transplanting time included an idle time of 11% due to clogging with mud. Missing hill percentage was found as 6.1% with a floating hill of 7.36%. Plant heights were 15.72 cm and 86.19 cm at the day of transplanting and at the day of harvesting, with tiller per hill of 18 nos. The average panicle length of plants was found as 23.6 cm where traditionally transplanted rice has panicles of 21.2 cm average. The yields of mechanically transplanted rice in unpuddled soil condition was 5.21 ton/ha and the yield of mechanical transplanted rice in unpuddled soil was found to be 27.07% higher than traditionally transplanted rice. The BCR and IRR of mechanical transplanting in unpuddled soil was found 1.57 and 55% considering 10% discount factor. The payback period, after which the transplanter will overcome its costs, was found 1.68 years. Financial analysis reveals that mechanical transplanting with this field capacity will be beneficial if the transplanter is used to transplant 19.77 ha annually.
 Progressive Agriculture 30 (4): 405-413, 2019

Yield, water use efficiency and water productivity of rice (Oryza sativa L.) relative to irrigation management and crop establishment methods

A field experiment was conducted at Crop Research Centre, RPCAU, Pusa, Bihar during Kharif, 2017. The soil of the experimental plot was sandy loam in texture with low in available N, P2O5 and K2O. The experiment was laid out in split plot design and replicated thrice. A total of twelve treatment combinations were used viz., three irrigation levels (I) in main plots and four crop establishment methods (E) in sub-plots. Irrigation level includes I1 - Continuous submergence throughout crop growth, I2-Saturation maintenance upto PI and (5±2cm) after PI and I3 -Alternate wetting and drying (5 cm irrigation at 3 DADPW) up to PI and (5±2 cm) after PI while the methods of establishment includes E1- Normal transplanting, E2- Direct w.et seeding on puddled soil, E3- Direct dry seeding and E4- Broadcasting on un-puddled soil. Grain as well as straw yield were significantly influenced by different crop establishment methods but not significantly affected by different irrigation levels. Water use efficiency and water productivity were also significantly affected by different crop establishment methods but water productivity was not significantly affected by different irrigation managements.

Profitability of Rice based Cropping System by Sequencing Vegetable Cowpea under Various Establishment Techniquesin Periyar-Vaigai Command

Field experiment was conducted during Rabi season, 2013-14 to the study the effect of crop establishment techniques and crop geometries on yield and economics of rice-vegetable cowpea cropping system. Experiment was laid out in strip plot design and treatments were replicated thrice. The sixteen treatment combination consisted of four establishment techniques viz., puddled transplanting (E1 ), puddled direct seeding (E2 ), unpuddled transplanting (E3 ), unpuddled direct seeding (E4 ) and four crop geometries such as 30 x 20 cm (S1 ), 20 x 10 cm (S1 ), 25 x 25 cm (S3 ) and 30 x 30 cm (S4 ). Among the different treatment combinations, square planting of 25 x 25 cm adopted in puddled condition gave higher grain yield of 6963 kg ha-1 and straw yield of 9299 kg ha-1. In case of succeeding vegetable cowpea, higher yield of 8780 kg ha-1 and halum yield (13926 kg ha-1) was obtained in the combination of 30 x 30 cm under unpuddled direct seeded method. Similarly, higher gross return, net return, B:C ratio and lower production cost recorded under same combination. Puddling practice was conducive for rice, unpuddled soil was found to be optimum for succeeding deep rooted crops like vegetable cowpea.

Evaluation of alternative tillage and crop establishment methods in rice (Oryza sativa) cultivation

A two-year field study was conducted during 2011 and 2012 at Karnal (Haryana), to evaluate tillage and crop establishment (TCE) options with an objective to improve yield, water productivity and profitability in rice (Oryza sativa L.). The TCE methods had a significant effect on rice yields. Grain yield of mechanically transplanted rice (MTR) in puddled soil was significantly higher (10-22%) than all the other treatments in both the years of study. Conventional till direct seeded rice (CT-DSR) and zero-till direct seeded rice (ZT-DSR) consumed 12-17% less water as compared to puddled transplanted (manual or mechanical) rice during 2011, whereas during 2012, it consumed 5- 9% more water than puddled transplanted rice. DSR (CT or ZT) and mechanical transplanting (under both puddled and unpuddled conditions) resulted in a labour saving of 7-8% and 6-12% as compared to manual puddled transplanting, respectively. The benefit: cost ratio was highest in MTR in puddled soil followed by ZT-DSR and was minimum in mechanically transplanted rice in unpuddled soil. Energy output: input ratio was highest in MTR (4.1) in puddled soil followed by manual transplanting (3.7) and was minimum in MTR in unpuddled soil (3.2).

Experiences with Rice Grown on Permanent Raised Beds: Effect of Crop Establishment Techniques on Water Use, Productivity, Profitability and Soil Physical Properties

In recent years, conventional rice production technologies have been leading to deterioration of soil health and declining farm profitability due to high inputs of water and labor. Conservation agriculture (CA) based resource-conserving technologies i.e. zero-tillage (ZT), raised-bed planting and direct-seeded rice (DSR) have shown promise as alternatives to conventional production technologies to overcome these problems. Present study was undertaken during 2009–2012 to establish an understanding of how permanent raised bed cropping system could be practiced to save water at the field application level to improve water productivity and also have the capability to enhance productivity, profitability and soil physical quality. The results showed that among different crop establishment techniques, conventional-tilled puddle transplanted rice (CT-TPR) required 14%?25% more water than other techniques. Compared with the CT-TPR system, zero till direct-seeded rice (ZT-DSR) consumed 6%–10% less water with almost equal system productivity and demonstrated higher water productivity. Wide raised beds saved about 15%–24% water and grain yield decrease of about 8%. Direct-seeded rice after ZT or reduced tillage or on unpuddled soil provided more net income than CT-TPR. The CT-TPR system had higher bulk density and penetration resistance due to compaction caused by the repeated wet tillage in rice. The steady-state infiltration rate and soil aggregation (> 0.25 mm) were higher under permanent beds and ZT and lower in the CT-TPR system. Under CT-TPR, soil aggregation was static across seasons, whereas it improved under no-till and permanent beds. Similarly, mean weight diameter of aggregates was higher under ZT and permanent beds and increased over time. The study reveals that to sustain the rice productivity, CA-based planting techniques can be more viable options. However, the long-term effects of these alternative technologies need to be studied under varying agro-ecologies in western Uttar Pradesh, India.

Water and weed management studies in direct-seeded upland rice

Direct-seeded upland rice is an important system of rice culture occupying almost 22% of the total rice area in India. In Assam, this crop is locally known as ahu rice (Mar/Apr-Jun/July). Assam farmers prefer this crop because this period is characterized by low rainfall, clear skies, and low frequency of floods. However, some constraints limit the widespread cultivation of ahu rice: uncertain rainfall; high evaporative demand, causing moisture stress; and weed infestation. Although the application of irrigation can solve the problem of moisture stress, scheduling of irrigation in upland situations where seed is sown in dry unpuddled soil is very difficult. Hence, upland rice should have drought tolerance to withstand possible moisture stress in between irrigation schedules. Seed hardening with potassium salt before sowing helps induce drought tolerance in crops (Chinoy et al 1970).

Effect of puddling intensity on temporal variation in soil physical conditions and yield of rice ( Oryza sativa L.) in a Vertisol of central India

Puddling as well as no-puddling for growing transplanted and direct seeded rice, respectively, have their disadvantages as well as advantages on the physical condition of the soil and yield of rice. The soil that is more susceptible to changes in structure is easy to puddle. However, what should be the extent of puddling is not well established. Generally, farmers have a tendency to create a very fine puddle that actually may not be required. Keeping in view the current global emphasis on conservation of resources as well as reduction of the production cost to improve the economic gain of farmers, this study attempted to find out the influence of varying intensities of puddling on the soil physical condition and rice yield (cv. IR 36) in a Vertisol of central India. The study was conducted over two cropping seasons during year 2000 and 2001. Three puddling intensities i.e. no-puddling ( P 0), and puddling by four ( P 1) and eight ( P 2) passes of a 5 hp power tiller were evaluated. The aggregate mean weight diameter (AMWD) of soil (0–15 cm depth) for P 0 remained almost unchanged till harvest. At 15 days after puddling, AMWD in P 1 and P 2 compared to P 0 was less by 45 and 59% in the first year and by 60 and 69% in the second year, respectively. These values at harvest changed to 22 and 46% in the year 2000 and 28 and 43% in the year 2001, respectively. Soil bulk density (BD) and penetration resistance (PR) increased significantly from transplanting to harvest in puddled soil, but in unpuddled soil significant increase in PR only at the surface 0–7 cm layer was observed. Higher intensity of puddling favoured more soil wetness at harvest, as the puddled soil maintained 25% more water than P 0. Compared to P 1, P 2 showed an increase of 4.3, 10.3 and 7.7% in length, width and depth of cracks, respectively, while the increase in P 1 over P 0 in the same order was 35, 23.5 and 13.3%, respectively. Thus, crack dimensions (length, width and depth) were larger under high intensity of puddling. Water loss through seepage plus percolation was significantly higher in P 0 as compared to P 1 and P 2 and the higher intensity of puddling reduced the losses more. The grain yield of P 2 was slightly higher than P 1 but both were significantly above P 0. Higher grain yield resulted in 46 and 49% more water use efficiency under P 1 and P 2 than P 0, respectively. This 2-year study has shown that puddling beyond P 1 i.e., four passes of a 5 hp power tiller may not be required to obtain higher yield or other benefits in Vertisols having similar hydrology to that reported here. Puddling only to the required level will also deteriorate less the soil physical condition as compared to more intense puddling. The unpuddled direct seeded rice maintained the soil in a better physical condition but the yield was significantly lower in relation to the puddled ones.

Energetics, productivity and weed control in different rice (Oryza sativa) establishment methods in North-Western Indo-Gangetic Plains

A field experiment was conducted at Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (Punjab) during the rainy (kharif) season of 2009 and 2010, to study the effect of various establishment methods and weed-control treatments on weeds, crop growth, yield attributes and yield of rice (Oryza sativa L.). The experiment was laid out in a split-plot design with 5 establishment methods, i.e. dry-seeding with 3 different drillszero till drill, modified furrow drill, con- ventional seed-cum-fertilizer drill in unpuddled soil, wetseeding or manual broadcast in puddled soil and manual transplanting in puddled soil, and 4 weed-control treatments, viz. pre-emergence application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha, sequential application of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha and bispyribac 0.025 kg/ha or azimsulfuron 0.02 kg/ha and weed-free in 4 replications. Weed biomass at harvesting, effective tillers and grain yield did not vary signifi- cantly among different establishment methods. At 60 days after sowing, 27% more plant height, 5.6% more num- ber of tillers and 49% more crop biomass were recorded under direct seeding methods than transplanting method. More net returns ( 36,660/ha) and energy output: input ratio (5.04) were recorded under dry seeding methods than wet seeding ( 28,792/ha and 4.24) and puddled transplanted method ( 27,305/ha and 4.47). The maximum grain yield (6.7 t/ha) was recorded under weed-free treatment which was statistically at par with sequential use of pendimethalin 0.75 kg/ha with bispyribac 0.025 kg (6.6 t/ha) or azimsulfuron 0.02 kg/ha (6.5 t/ha). Sequential ap- plication of pre- and post-emergence herbicides resulted in more benefit: cost ratio (1.66) and energy output: input ratio (5.32).

The effect of seeding and tillage methods on productivity of rice–wheat cropping system

Many farmers in southeast Asia are growing rice on unpuddled soil. This practice does not permit breaking of the deadlock of increase in productivity in spite of using high yielding varieties and practising all known scientific technologies. Furthermore, farmers do dry seeding which leads to heavy infestation of weeds and reduces response to other inputs. Similarly, in rice–wheat belt due to short turn around time farmers resort to broadcast sowing of wheat after rice and no data on benefits or otherwise of tillage are available. A field study was therefore conducted for 3 years (1993–1994 to 1995–1996) at the Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi to study the effect of tillage and seeding methods in rice–wheat cropping system. Treatments included four combinations of two puddling treatments (puddling and no puddling) and two methods of rice seeding (direct seeding and transplanting) in rice and two tillage treatments (zero and conventional tillage) in wheat. Results indicated that puddling increased grain yield of rice by 0.7–1 t ha −1 and of succeeding wheat by 0.2–0.4 t ha −1, straw yield of rice by 0.8–1.7 t ha −1 and of succeeding wheat by 0.1–1.0 t ha −1. Puddling reduced water requirement of rice by 75 mm ha and increased net return of rice–wheat system by US $175 ha −1. Transplanted rice gave significantly higher grain and straw yields and net returns than direct seeded rice both on puddled and unpuddled seedbed. Conventional tillage in wheat also increased productivity of rice–wheat cropping system significantly over zero tillage after both puddled and non-puddled rice. Our results thus show that rice should be grown on puddled soil and wheat after rice should be sown after conventional tillage.