Unprotected Road Users Research Articles

Assessment of the visibility of unprotected road users in pedestrian crossing

The article presents selected results of research on improving pedestrian traffic safety. Based on annually-updated accident statistics made available by the police, as well as the new pedestrian traffic regulations in force, detailed work was undertaken to assess the level of visibility of pedestrians by drivers in pedestrian crossing areas. The research was carried out by analyzing several characteristic cases of pedestrian crossings occurring in Poland, in which there was only dedicated lighting for crossings, only street lighting, and a variant of coexistence of both of the above lighting solutions. Illuminance measurements were made in the horizontal and vertical planes of pedestrian crossings, and the results were confronted with the relevant guidelines. The next step involved a complementary measurement of the luminance distribution of the vertical plane containing the pedestrian and a portion of the sub- and super-horizontal background. Visibility pedestrians was considered in positive and negative contrast variants, and was then related to the obtained results of the illumination distribution. The analysis of the results of the study indicated the possibility of limited visibility of pedestrians at the crossings despite the satisfactory results obtained from measurements of the illuminance distribution within the crossings.

TRAFFIC CONTROL AT PEDESTRIAN PRIORITY CROSSINGS WITH GUARANTEED LANE THROUGHPUT CAPACITY AS EXEMPLIFIED BY THE LEGAL REGULATIONS APPLICABLE IN POLAND

The article describes the problem of excessive traffic concentration at signalized pedestrian crossings. The main drawback of such crossings is the inappropriate duration of green signals for vehicles. Too long green times for vehicular traffic significantly increase time lost by pedestrians, while too short ones cause short-term congestion, resulting in long queues of vehicles and a deteriorated level of service. The negative effects of both of these situations also include dangerous behavior of road users, such as red light running or crossing. Recent (June 2021) changes in the road traffic law in Poland have privileged unprotected road users at pedestrian crossings. New models and technical and design standards proposed in this country (March 2021) recommend the installation of pedestrian priority crossings at particularly dangerous spots and in urban areas with a high proportion of pedestrian traffic. All this is done mainly for traffic-calming purposes. However, previously these measures were not a common practice in Poland. Therefore, the objective of this article was to develop a simple method of green signal timing, ensuring, firstly, priority to pedestrian traffic at such places, and, secondly, sustained capacity of vehicular traffic lanes. The developed models are practical, universal and easy to adapt in other countries. They ensure a very good or good quality of vehicle traffic service, with average lost time not exceeding 25 s in a vast majority of analyzed traffic level cases. The article also describes a traffic control algorithm dependent on traffic detection.

The association between beverage-specific alcohol consumption and mortality among road users in Russia, 1965–2019

A vast body of literature suggests a relationship between alcohol consumption and road traffic fatalities. Despite an impressive downward trend in road traffic fatalities in Russia, the death rate is still unacceptably high. Far fewer studies have differentiated the association by road users and types of alcoholic beverages. This population-based study aims to estimate the associations of total and beverage-specific alcohol per capita (15+) consumption (APC) based on official alcohol sales statistics and road traffic mortality using police data on the number of deaths by road users. The study covers the period 1965–2019. We employed a first-order difference linear regression model with robust and autocorrelation consistent standard errors, controlling for a level of motorisation. To examine the possible evolution of the phenomenon, we repeated models separately for three consecutive periods (1965–1984, 1985–2002, 2003–2019). The findings suggest that an annual 1-litre increase in APC (in litres of pure alcohol) associated with a corresponding increase in the death rates (per 100,000 inhabitants) of both unprotected road users and motor vehicle occupants by about 0.3 (p < 0.01) and 0.4 (p < 0.05), respectively. A beverage-specific analysis for 1965–2019 revealed a positive and significant association between mortality of pedestrians and cyclists and the consumption of strong alcoholic beverages (p < 0.05) as well as mortality of drivers and passengers and the consumption of weaker alcoholic beverages, primarily beer (p < 0.01). Various road safety strategies should be applied to prevent road traffic fatalities of road users.

Shared space: Different age groups’ perspectives

BackgroundShared spaces, in the context of road transport, often refer to areas shared by unprotected and protected road users and intended to facilitate a living city space for every-one. A basic idea behind shared spaces is to create traffic safety by inducing some uncertainty. This study investigates how young, middle-aged, and elderly pedestrians experience shared space, as well as whether and, if so, how two shared space designs (without and with large flowerpots) affect this experience. MethodThirty-seven participants, divided into three age groups, participated in the study, conducted in Fisherman’s Square, Västervik, Sweden. An adjacent non-signal-regulated pedestrian crossing was used as a control. Two studies – visual scanning and Q studies – were combined. In the visual scanning study, eye-tracking examined how the two designs affected the participants’ visual scanning behaviour (i.e., what participants looked at) as pedestrians. In the Q-study, Q-methodology was used to examine how the two designs affected the participants’ experiences as pedestrians. ResultsThe visual scanning study showed that different age groups were affected in different ways by designs without and with large flowerpots in the shared space. While the middle-aged participants always glanced more often at traffic-relevant objects, and young participants always glanced equally often at traffic-relevant and non-traffic-relevant objects, the elderly participants changed their visual scanning behaviour depending on the design. Without large flowerpots deployed, the elderly participants glanced more often at traffic-relevant than non-traffic-relevant objects. No such difference was obtained when large flowerpots were deployed. The Q-study showed that participants, regardless of age, experienced no great uncertainty in this shared space. The perceived uncertainty, which nevertheless existed, was reduced with large flowerpots deployed to recreate the traditional division with clear zones where pedestrians could stay in relatively car-free areas while motor vehicles had clear paths to travel along. ConclusionThe results suggest that shared space, without large flowerpots, succeeded in inducing some uncertainty, especially among middle-aged and elderly pedestrians. However, deploying large flowerpots seemed to decrease this uncertainty, especially among elderly pedestrians. The major concern prompted by these results is how this decreased uncertainty affects traffic safety. Shared space also needs to be studied from the car driver’s perspective to understand the interaction between different road user groups.

Methods of increasing pedestrian safety in the road traffic

The article presents methods of increasing pedestrian safety in the road traffic. A significant number of different concepts and inventions is systematically appearing on the automotive market to protect pedestrians and support the driver. Through constant analyses, manufacturers have noticed that not only vehicle passengers are at risk of the loss of health or life at the time of an accident, but also unprotected road users (pedestrians and cyclists), of whom there are still more. From year to year, the constructors propose safety devices that protect the driver and passenger, as well as active and passive safety systems. The active and passive safety systems as well as some concepts of creating safe pedestrian crossings have been discussed here.

Willingness to Pay for Road Safety Improvements in Poland

Purpose: The article presents the results of empirical research on the application of the WTP method in Poland and VSL for Poland for different road users: pedestrians and drivers. Design/Methodology/Approach: An essential instrument for improving road traffic safety is to identify factors determining the behaviour of road users and their willingness to pay (WTP) for reducing the risk of death or injury. The research was conducted on a representative sample of 1085 people using a conjoint analysis. It was preceded by preliminary research using the bulletin board discussion technique for improving the quality of the measuring instrument. Findings: The research allowed for estimating the Value of a Statistical Life (VSL) and determine the profile of behaviour of protected and unprotected road users. The VSL estimate for Poland does not differ significantly from the values determined for other European and non-European countries, but is lowest. Practical Implications: The study provides in-depth knowledge about the socio-economic profile of road users necessary to improve the effectiveness of educational programs in the field of road safety improvement. Originality/value: The VSL research was conducted with an exclusive, two-stage method of using the bulletin board discussion (BBD) technique and the conjoint analysis based on the WTP method; This study estimated the Value of Statistical Life in terms of road safety for different road users: pedestrians and drivers in Poland.

Alcohol and Road Accidents Involving Pedestrians as Unprotected Road Users.

According to the World Health Organization (WHO), more than half of all road fatalities involve vulnerable road users, i.e., pedestrians, cyclists, and motorcyclists. Poland is classified as one of the European Union (EU) countries marked by low road safety, with a higher frequency of accidents involving pedestrians compared to other EU countries (31% of all fatalities). Among unprotected road users, a significant group of victims are pedestrians, who are often under the influence of alcohol. This study aims to analyze the impact of alcohol on the risk of occurrence and consequences of road accidents among pedestrians. The source of data was the medical documentation of the Department of Forensic Medicine of the Medical University of Warsaw. In more than half of pedestrian deaths, the presence of alcohol was found; regardless of the place of the event and the place of death, among the victims under the influence of alcohol, males dominated; the average age of the victims under the influence of alcohol was significantly lower compared to the average age of sober victims, with younger victims being significantly more likely to die at the scene of the accident, especially in rural areas; significantly higher alcohol concentrations were found in males, in victims who died at the scene of the accident, and with victims of accidents in rural areas. Among pedestrian traffic accident fatalities, the most numerous group comprised young men under the influence of alcohol. In rural areas, a higher percentage of pedestrian victims died at the scene as a result of excessive alcohol consumption. These areas should be subject to intensive preventive measures to increase the safety of pedestrians as unprotected road users.

Increased traffic injuries among older unprotected road users following the introduction of an age-based cognitive test to the driver’s license renewal procedure in Japan

BackgroundTo deal with the increasing number of motor vehicle collisions (MVCs) among older drivers, a cognitive test has been introduced to a license renewal procedure for drivers aged ≥75 years since June 2009. This might have prompted the reduction or cessation of driving by older drivers. We therefore examined whether older drivers’ chance of experiencing MVCs as unprotected road users has increased after the test was introduced. MethodsUsing police-reported national data on MVCs from January 2005 through December 2016, we calculated the monthly injury rates (including deaths, severe injuries, and minor injuries) among unprotected road users (bicyclists and pedestrians) by sex and age group (70–74, 75–79, 80–84, and ≥85 years). The ratios of the injury rates of unprotected road users in the three oldest age groups (who were subjected to the test) to those aged 70–74 years (not subjected to the test) were also calculated. Then, we conducted an interrupted time-series analysis based on the injury rate ratios to control for extraneous factors affecting MVCs over the study period. ResultsThere was a significant increase in traffic injuries of unprotected road users at the time the test was introduced among females aged 75–84 years, and at a later time among males aged ≥80 years and females aged ≥85 years. ConclusionLicensing policies for older drivers should be rigorously evaluated, taking into account the safety of older unprotected road users, and should be balanced against it.

Incidence of seriously injured road users in a Swedish region, 2003\u20132014, from the perspective of a national road safety policy

BackgroundSince 1997 Sweden has a policy for road safety called Vision Zero. Given that Vision Zero is mainly used to reduce fatalities among car occupants, the question has been raised by the research community whether a Vision Zero approach promotes health for all road traffic users. The objective is to measure target fulfilment of the national road safety policy for a Swedish region by examining incidence of serious injury during 2003–2014 in rural and urban road spaces with or without implemented measures.MethodsData on seriously injured road users, defined as ISS > 8 (Injury Severity Score), were retrieved from STRADA (Swedish Traffic Accident Data Acquisition) together with data from NVDB (National Road Database). These data are used to describe where road users are seriously injured in relation to implemented national policy and using a conceptual model of a road space comprising roads, pavements and tracks for walking and cycling. Seriously injured road users in single and multiple crashes with and without vehicles are included. The development of the incidence is analysed for different road users and places in the road space.ResultsDespite implemented road safety measures in the region, the incidence of seriously injured road users per 100,000 inhabitants in rural areas increased from 7.8 in 2003 to 9.3 in 2014 but doubled in urban areas from 8.0 in to 16.3 respectively. In areas not transformed by Vision Zero, only 36% were injured in rural areas while 64% were injured in urban areas. In contrast, in transformed areas 61% of injuries occurred in rural areas, whereas 39% occurred in urban areas. While the incidence decreased for car occupants on transformed national roads in rural areas, the incidence of serious injuries increased among unprotected road users in urban areas, in particular on pavements and tracks for cycling and walking than on the roads where Vision Zero had been implemented.ConclusionThe reduction in the incidence for car occupants in the region may not be adequate to contribute to fulfilling the national target. More needs to be done, especially in the urban areas, where more active mobility is desired.

Factors related to the increasing number of seriously injured cyclists and pedestrians in a Swedish urban region 2003-17.

BackgroundThe number of seriously injured unprotected road users has increased during implementation of a road safety policy Vision Zero. The aim of the study is to identify factors associated with the increase in serious injuries among cyclists and pedestrians (even single pedestrian accidents) that occurred in an urban road space in a Swedish region 2003–17. The urban road space includes roads, pavements and tracks for walking and cycling.MethodsData were retrieved from STRADA (Swedish Traffic Accident Data Acquisition) and NVDB (National Road Database). Descriptive statistics and logistic regression with odds ratios for sex, age and part of road space were assessed.ResultsThe number of seriously injured cyclists and pedestrians more than doubled from 2003 to 2017, with the greatest increase for pedestrians. Older age increased the probability of serious injury since 2012 for the group ≥ 80 years and since 2015 for the group 65–79 years. No significant effect of sex. Most injuries occur in areas not transformed by Vision Zero.ConclusionsAn increasing number of elderly persons in the generation born in the 1940s and increased life expectancy are important factors. There is a need to increase road safety measures that also promote active mobility.

The Effect of Ethyl Alcohol upon Pedestrian Trauma Sustained in Traffic Crashes.

Introduction: Every year more than 1.2 million people worldwide die due to trauma sustained in road crashes, with an additional number of people injured exceeding 50 million. To a large extent, this applies to so called “unprotected road users”, including pedestrians. The risk involved in a traffic crash for pedestrians can result from many factors, one of which is participation in road traffic when under the influence of alcohol. The aim of this study was to analyze the impact of alcohol use among pedestrians as unprotected road traffic participants, and the consequences of them being struck by motor vehicles. Material and methods: The source of data was the medical documentation of the Department of Forensic Medicine at the Medical University of Warsaw. The sample for this research consisted of 313 pedestrians who were victims of fatal road crashes resulting from a collision with a mechanical vehicle. The obtained results were subjected to statistical analysis using the STATISTICA version 12.5 program (StatSoft Polska, Cracow, Poland). Results: Male fatalities constituted the majority of the study sample. Nearly half of the fatal pedestrian victims were found to be under the influence of alcohol. The statistical analysis demonstrated a significant relationship between the gender and age of the victims, as well as between the place of the event, the place of death, the mechanism of the event, and the presence of alcohol in pedestrians. Conclusions: Among pedestrians, victims of road crashes who were under the influence of alcohol were predominantly drunk young males. Victims under the influence of alcohol were more likely to become fatalities in crashes where the mechanism of the incident was being struck by a passenger car, and when the place of the incident was a rural area, in these cases the rates of death directly at the scene were much more frequent. The eradication of alcohol consumption by all road users should be the overriding objective of all measures aimed at reducing the number of road crashes.

Safe System Speed Management

Speed management is crucial to a safe road and traffic system. Unsafe speeds travelled by motor vehicles contributes to around 40% of road fatalities. This lecture discusses the pivotal role of speed management in safe system road safety and how to address the problem of speeding. With the adoption of Safe System principles for road safety strategies, it is no longer acceptable that people should die or be seriously injured due to mistakes made when using roads. The design and management parameter for road and traffic systems should focus on the fallibility and vulnerability of human road users. Speed is a most critical factor because it is the crash impact speed that determines the degree of harm that is inflicted on people. Speed management is perhaps the most contested issue in road safety and the most difficult one to perform effectively. Part of this problem has to do with the very nature of human beings. Instead of making every effort to keep safe, people tend to always try to optimise the benefits of their risk behaviour. To make things worse, behavioural research has found that human beings do not generally judge risk accurately and have an optimism bias. So, when it comes to driving speed selection people tend to misjudge the time it will take for them to take evasive action or stop in time to avoid a crash. Perception, reaction and braking times will be covered in this lecture. From crash data analysis and biomechanical research findings the impact crash speeds that can kill people in various crash types are now known. For example, the percentage of risk of fatally injuring a pedestrian rises sharply after the impact speed exceeds 30 km/h. Road networks generally have a variety of functions. There are roads that have primarily flow through functions, roads with access functions and roads that serve to cater for a mix of vulnerable and less vulnerable road users. The Dutch first fostered the notion that road hierarchies should be defined, encompassing all of the functions that the road network aims to support. Then possible crash or traffic conflict types can be analysed. If the overriding priority is to prevent road deaths, the safe limit for roads with possible conflicts between cars and unprotected road users is 30 km/h or lower. For locations where impacts with fixed roadside objects are possible the limit should be no higher than 40km/h. For intersections with possible lateral conflicts between cars 50km/h would be the maximum limit. Roads with possible head-on crashes between cars would have a limit no greater than 70 km/h. Where head-on and side-on conflicts with other road users are impossible, limits greater than 70 km/h can be considered. Motorways with side barriers and centre barriers should be limited to 110 km/h maximum. This lecture will discuss the actions that can be taken to prevent speed-related road injuries and fatalities. It will cover social, behavioural and engineering solutions.

Investigations of driver’s speed at unsignalised pedestrian crossings

Pedestrian crossings are critical places for road accidents involving pedestrians and motor vehicles. Due to the relation between speed and injury severe the driver’s speed has a crucial impact on pedestrian safety. In Poland the traffic-related death rate of unprotected road users is extremely high comparing to other countries of European Union even though the traffic law regulations require from drivers special attention and slowing down while approaching to the intersection and/or zebra pedestrian crossing area. The goal of the paper is to investigate driver’s speed while approaching to the pedestrian crossings located in mid-block areas and in inlet sections of unsignalised intersections and roundabouts. For this purpose the spot speed measurements in free flow traffic conditions were conducted using radar speed gun. Speed was recorded at a distance of 100m and 50m from the crossing as well as at the zebra crossing location. As a result driver’s speed behaviour based on statistical analysis and depending on the type, localization and distance from the pedestrian crossing was analysed and evaluated.

Bike-sharing as a possibility to support Vision Zero

Cyclists as unprotected road users are one of the most vulnerable groups of travelers. In order to improve their safety, various activities are carried out. Interested results are presented in Mineta Transportation Institute (MTI) report - Report 12-54: Bike-sharing and Bicycle Safety from 2016. It points out that there are no fatalities among users of city bike sharing systems in the United States. Due to the growing interest in systems in Poland, authors focused on the analysis of aspects related to the safety of their use. The paper presents factors that affect the road traffic safety of bike-sharing users. Authors referred to international practices used in cities bike-sharing systems and presented bike-sharing systems as an opportunity to support the implementation of Vision Zero.

Single Unprotected Road User Crashes: Europe we have a Problem!

Unprotected Road Users (URU) are a subset of Vulnerable Road Users (VRU) who are not protected in their vehicles: pedestrians, cyclists and powered two-wheelers. EU statistics for 2014 show that their share in road traffic fatalities was 22% for pedestrians, 8% for cyclists and 18% for Powered Two-Wheelers, in total 47% of the fatalities. From explorative studies regarding injured road traffic casualties it is found that about two thirds of the transportation casualties are Unprotected Road Users, of which two thirds are single accidents, i.e. crashes where no other road user is involved. Most of these single crashes are not (yet) detected in the standard police reported accident statistics, but do represent costs to society that probably exceed crash costs of car related crashes. It can be expected that the shares of URU fatal and injury crashes will increase, particularly because of the ageing of the population, urbanization and despite ICT/ITS developments. Some of these crashes can be prevented by relatively simple measures, others need more investments e.g. infrastructure, legislation or enforcement. From a policy point of view it will be wise to address this issue, not only for road safety reasons, but also because the elderly are getting more numerous and a serious economic and political factor.

Towards an understanding of the full spectrum of travel-related injuries among older people

Abstract The development of a traffic system that is age-attuned needs to take account of both mobility and safety issues, in particular in terms of interventions which lead to a change in the relative proportion of modes of transport utilized, as has been postulated for the impact of medical screening of older drivers. Statistics for travel-related injury have been dominated by impacts between motorized vehicles and either other motorized vehicles or unprotected road users to the point of neglecting other significant forms of traffic-related injury. This review of research in two emerging areas of concern – non-collision injuries in public transport and single pedestrian accidents – confirms that both of these causes of death and injury in traffic require further research and monitoring in traffic injury prevention. Although the research base is slender, the data is consistently suggestive of significant need for both concern and further research, and to ensure that the factors underlying these accidents are addressed so as to enhance preserved safe mobility for older Europeans.

Bicyclist–Bicyclist Crashes—A Medical and Technical Crash Analysis

Background: The purpose of this study was to analyze the actual injury situation of bicyclists focusing on accidents involving more than one bicyclist. A medical and technical analysis was performed as a basis for preventive measures. Methods: Technical and medical data were collected at the scene, shortly after the accident. Technical analysis included speed at crash, type of collision, impact angle, environment, lane used, and relative velocity. Medical analysis included injury patterns and severity (Abbreviated Injury Scale [AIS], Injury Severity Score [ISS]). Results: Five hundred seventy-eight injured bicyclists in 289 accidents from 1999 to 2008 were included into the study. Sixty-one percent were male (n = 350) and 39 percent were female (n = 228). Sixty-seven percent ranged between 18 and 64 years of age, 12 percent each between 13 and 17 years of age and older than 65 years, 8 percent between 6 and 12 years, and 1 percent between 2 and 5 years. Ninety-two percent of crashes took place in urban areas and 8 percent in rural areas. Ninety-seven percent of crashes occurred in dry conditions and 3 percent in wet conditions. Eighty-three percent of all accidents occurred during the daytime, 10 percent at night, and 7 percent at dawn. The helmet use rate was only 7.5 percent for all involved bicyclists. The mean Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) score was 1.31. Conclusion: The prevalence of bicycle-to-bicycle crashes is high. Most of these accidents occur in urban areas. Bicyclists should be considered as minimally or unprotected road users, with an unsatisfactorily low rate of helmet use. Though the average level and patterns of injuries is moderate, most of the severe injuries involved the head and extremities. However, there was no significant correlation between frequent helmet use and sustained injuries to the head of major AIS.

Why some road safety problems are more difficult to solve than others

Some road safety problems have persisted for a long time in nearly all motorised countries, suggesting that they are not easily solved. This paper documents the persistence over time of five such problems: the high risk of accidents involving young drivers; the high risk of injury run by unprotected road users; risks attributable to incompatibility between different types of vehicles and groups of road users; differences in risk between different types of traffic environment and speeding. A taxonomy of road safety problems is developed in order to identify characteristics of problems that can make them difficult to solve. It is argued that if a problem is not perceived as a problem, is attributable to a misguided confidence in road user rationality, involves social dilemmas, or is closely related to the physics of impacts then it is likely to be difficult to solve. Problems to which biological factors contribute are also likely to be difficult to solve. The characteristics that can make a problem difficult to solve are to some extent present for all the five problems shown to be persistent in this paper.

Seasonal variation in hospital admission for road traffic injuries in England: analysis of hospital statistics

Objective:To report on seasonal variation in hospital admissions for traffic injuries to car and truck occupants, motorcyclists, cyclists, and pedestrians.Methods:Descriptive study of hospital admission statistics in England, 1999–2004. Main outcome...

Is there a pattern in European bus and coach incidents? A literature analysis with special focus on injury causation and injury mechanisms

In order to identify and describe a pattern in bus and coach incident related injuries and fatalities, and to suggest possible future measures for improvement of bus and coach safety, a literature analysis was performed. The results formed a multi-faceted pattern, which briefly can be described as follows; women travelled more frequently by bus as compared to men. Injuries sustained predominantly affected women 60 years of age and older. Of all traffic fatalities in Europe, bus and coach fatalities represented 0.3–0.5%. In the OECD countries, the risk of being killed or seriously injured was found to be seven to nine times lower for bus and coach occupants as compared to those of car occupants. Despite the fact that fatalities were more frequent on rural roads, a vast majority of all bus and coach casualties occurred on urban roads and in dry weather conditions. Boarding and alighting caused about one-third of all injury cases. Collisions were a major injury-contributing factor. Buses and coaches most frequently collided with cars, but unprotected road users were hit in about one-third of all cases of a collision, the point of impact on the bus or the coach being typically frontal or side. Rollovers occurred in almost all cases of severe coach crashes. In this type of crash projection, total ejection, partial ejection, intrusion and smoke inhalation were the main injury mechanisms and among those, ejection being the most dangerous. A 2-point belt may prevent passenger ejection, but in frontal crashes when the upper abdominal parts and the head hit the seatback in front, it could, however, contribute to head and thoracic injuries. Hence, a 3-point belt provides the best restraint in rollovers and frontal crashes.