Commercialization Of University Research Research Articles

From knowledge to product

PurposeThe purpose of this paper is to examine the relationship between institutional change and commercialization of university research in China, the largest developing country during 1985‐2007 period.Design/methodology/approachThe findings are based on a comparative case study of two key Chinese universities. Both unstructured and semi‐interviews are utilized for the research.FindingsThere is still a gap between goals of institutional change and performances of commercializing university research, albeit improvements have also been observed over last two decades.Research limitations/implicationsOnly two universities are selected to approach the complex commercialization process, more cases are needed for further research.Practical implicationsExperience generated from this comparative study might be helpful for other developing countries to explore the appropriate paths to commercialize their research results.Originality/valueThree modes of commercialization proposed in the paper might help for cross‐country comparison research.

Ethical Conflicts in Commercialization of University Research in the Post–Bayh–Dole Era

Protection of intellectual property as well as its exploitation for monetary benefit have existed for centuries. However, commercialization of intellectual property had not entered the precincts of academic universities in a significant way until the introduction of the Bayh–Dole Act in the 1980s in the United States. The post–Bayh–Dole era has seen a quantitative increase in patenting activity in universities. This article summarizes the ethical conflicts ushered in by increasing commercialization of academic university research. Activities related to the protection and commercial exploitation of intellectual property have led to changes in academic culture that have given room for debate between the puritans and the modernists. Issues contended by the two groups have been identified, and both sides of the argument are discussed. The key to achieving “responsible commercialization of research” is to balance the Bayh–Dole ethos with the traditional Mertonian norms of academic research.

Challenges in University Technology Transfer and the Promising Role of Entrepreneurship Education

This paper outlines the many challenges that confront efforts to commercialize university technologies via spinouts or startups, and it discusses the role of entrepreneurship education in relation to these challenges. We begin by considering the role of startups vis‐a‐vis other mechanisms in the commercialization of university research. We then outline the resource requirements for successful startups, including financial resources; facilities; specialized equipment; and people, including potential managers, team members, board members and advisors. Next, we consider the role of entrepreneurship education in addressing these resource requirements and, drawing upon an extensive literature review, we elaborate on best practices for entrepreneurship education in terms of audience, curriculum, and external engagement. Finally, we highlight a number of important distinctions between entrepreneurship education and technology transfer, and we propose a set of questions that can aid programs in assessing the relationship between these areas. Ultimately, we point to a number of ways by which entrepreneurship education can enhance technology transfer, but we caution against excessively close relationships and the cooptation of entrepreneurship education for technology transfer aims.

Embedded Librarians Promote an Innovation Agenda: University of Toronto Libraries and the MaRS Discovery District

In 2005 the University of Toronto Libraries and the MaRS Discovery District, a hub for entrepreneurial activity in Canada, joined forces to launch a market intelligence service aimed at science and technology entrepreneurs in the province of Ontario. Through this innovative program, University of Toronto librarians are on-site in the MaRS Discovery District where they work directly with MaRS business advisors and local entrepreneurs to provide access to market research and business planning resources and support the University's research commercialization strategy.

Australian university research commercialisation: perceptions of technology transfer specialists and science and technology academics

Australian governments in recent years have invested substantially in innovation and research commercialisation with the aim of enhancing international economic competitiveness, making research findings more readily available to research users, and supporting economic and social development. Although there have been a number of evaluations of Australia's research commercialisation, judgements about the performance of universities are somewhat contradictory and to date there has been little effort to take account of the views of key staff directly involved in research commercialisation processes. Using data from two separate national surveys, this article reports on the perceptions of technology transfer specialists and science and technology academics who hold industry research funding about both the success of university efforts and the effectiveness of government programs.

Entrepreneurial Business Model for Classical Research University

Commercialization process of research is analyzed in University-Industry-Government (UIG) framework in the context of entrepreneurial university business model. Critical issue in the UIG-relations model is the role of entrepreneurship: is enterprise integrated into all (education and not only intra-) university activities or is entrepreneurship support system targeted as a function for university R&D commercialization system only? From the literature it is known that the patterns of entrepreneurial university as a knowledge creator for society are more frequently represented in applied science oriented technology universities. The main aspects in entrepreneurial pattern of university are creation and implementation of transferable new knowledge and behaviour of actors in that process. All these aspects contain topics related to R&D funding, inventorship and ownership of patents. Patenting alone is not the evidence of entrepreneurial behaviour of the university, but this is one of the first steps targeted to implement created new knowledge into real business. The aim of the paper is to explore knowledge creation, especially patented intellectual property (IP) created by university staff targeted on commercialization of university research. Entrepreneurship and entrepreneurial environment in UIG network have been identified as critical success factor in knowledge production by university. Based on previous publications university business model in the University-IndustryGovernment framework has been described. The author’s position is that the (state) government is playing a very specific role in university entrepreneurship domain via governmental order as it has been in the fields of education and research. Empirical survey of knowledge production is based on the sample of five European universities from Sweden, Finland, Estonia and the Netherlands. The main research questions are general data about sample universities, like number of researchers, funding of R&D, creation of IP as well as indicators of efficiency of knowledge production. Results demonstrate growth in a number of publications abstracted in ISI Web between 1.2 and 2.0 times in the period 2000-2008. Productivity of publication per researcher differs maximum 1.9 times between universities and productivity of patenting figure differs approximately 13.5 times, partly as a result of Swedish “professors’ privilege” IP regime. That points on the need to learn more non-university patenting by academic personnel of other countries, but it obviously raises the question related to employment and patent ownership regulation in European countries generally. This regulation seems to be absolutely inefficient to protect new knowledge produced for national public R&D funding.

Voodoo Institution or Entrepreneurial University? Spin-off Companies, the Entrepreneurial System and Regional Development in the UK

Harrison R. T. and Leitch C. Voodoo institution or entrepreneurial university? Spin-off companies, the entrepreneurial system and regional development in the UK, Regional Studies. University spin-off companies occupy a prominent position in both government and university policies and aspirations for the commercialization of university research for economic benefit at regional and national levels. However, most university spin-off companies start small and remain small, reflecting founder aspirations, capabilities, and resource endowments. Based on detailed analysis of university spin-offs in Northern Ireland, it is concluded that these companies are technology lifestyle businesses not dynamic high-growth potential start-ups, and it is suggested that the prominence given to spin-offs in the analysis of technology transfer and in discussions of the economic impacts of universities is misplaced. Harrison R. T. et Leitch C. Une institution vaudou ou une université entrepreneuriale? La création d'entreprise, le système entrepreneurial et l'aménagement du territoire au R-U, Regional Studies. La création d'entreprise par les universités jouit d'une importance de premier plan pour ce qui est des politiques du gouvernement et des universités, et vu l'aspiration de commercialiser la recherche universitaire pour en tirer un profit économique au niveau régional et à l’échelle nationale. Cependant, la plupart des nouvelles entreprises créées par les universités sont de petite taille et continuent de l’être, ce qui reflète l'aspiration, les capacités et la dotation en capital du créateur. A partir d'une analyse détaillée de la création d'entreprise par les universités situées en Irlande du Nord, on conclut que ces entreprises–là sont des entreprises technologiques par styles de vie et ne sont pas des créations d'entreprise dynamiques à croissance forte. On laisse supposer aussi que l'importance accordée à la création d'entreprise dans l'analyse du transfert technologique et le débat sur l'impact économique des universités s'avère déplacée. Transfert technologique Création d'entreprise Système entrepreneurial Aménagement du territoire Université entrepreneuriale Harrison R. T. und Leitch C. Voodoo-Institution oder Unternehmertum an Universitäten? Spin-off-Firmen, Unternehmenssysteme und Regionalentwicklung in Großbritannien, Regional Studies. Spin-off-Firmen von Universitäten spielen in der Politik von Regierungen und Universitäten sowie bei den Bestrebungen zur Kommerzialisierung der universitären Forschung für einen wirtschaftlichen Nutzen auf regionaler und nationaler Ebene eine wichtige Rolle. Die meisten universitären Spin-off-Firmen sind jedoch zu Beginn und auch später von geringer Größe und reflektieren die Bestrebungen, Fähigkeiten und Ressourcen der Gründer. Anhand einer detaillierten Analyse der Spin-off-Firmen von Universitäten in Nordirland ziehen wir den Schluss, dass es sich bei diesen Firmen weniger um dynamische Start-up-Firmen mit hohem Wachstumspotenzial als vielmehr um technologische Lifestyle-Unternehmen handelt und dass die starke Beachtung, die Spin-off-Firmen bei der Analyse von Technologietransfer und in den Diskussionen über die wirtschaftlichen Auswirkungen von Universitäten finden, fehl am Platze ist. Technologietransfer Spin-off-Firmen Unternehmenssystem Regionalentwicklung Unternehmertum an Universitäten Harrison R. T. y Leitch C. ¿Institución vudú o universidad empresarial? Empresas spin-off, el sistema empresarial y el desarrollo regional en el Reino Unido, Regional Studies. Las empresas spin-off universitarias ocupan un lugar destacado en las políticas gubernamentales y universitarias así como las aspiraciones para la comercialización de la investigación universitaria para el beneficio económico a nivel regional y nacional. Sin embargo, la mayoría de empresas spin-off universitarias comienzan como empresas pequeñas y siguen siendo pequeñas, lo que refleja las aspiraciones y capacidades de los fundadores y las dotaciones de recursos. Basándonos en un análisis detallado de las empresas spin-off universitarias en Irlanda del Norte, concluimos que estas sociedades no son empresas emergentes dinámicas con un alto potencial de crecimiento sino empresas de estilo de vida tecnológico, y sugerimos que la importancia que se otorga a las empresas spin-off en los análisis de transferencia tecnológica y en las charlas sobre las repercusiones económicas de las universidades queda fuera de lugar. Transferencia tecnológica Empresas spin-off Sistema empresarial Desarrollo regional Universidad empresarial

The Knowledge Filter and Economic Growth: The Role of Scientist Entrepreneurship

This study examines the prevalence and determinants of the commercialization of research by the top twenty percent of university scientists funded by grants from the National Cancer Institute (NCI). Because the two publicly available modes of scientist commercialization - patents and Small Business Innovation Research (SBIR) grants - do not cover the full spectrum of commercializing activities undertaken by university scientists, the study also includes two additional measures obtained from detailed scientist interviews: licensing of intellectual property and starting a new firm. These measures are used to assess both the prevalence and determinants of scientist commercialization of research. In particular, two distinct routes for commercializing scientist research are identified, the Technology Transfer Office (TTO) route and the entrepreneurial route, which does not involve assigning a patent to the university. This study in no way provides an assessment or judgment about the efficacy of the TTO. Rather, this study highlights the extent to which additional commercialization of research takes place, suggesting that the contribution of universities to U.S. innovation and ultimately economic growth may be greater than had previously been believed. Specific empirical findings suggest that:Scientists receiving funding from the National Cancer Institute exhibit a robust propensity to commercialize their research. However, the prevalence of commercialization depends highly upon the actual mode of commercialization. Some modes of commercialization, such as patents, are more prevalent, while other modes, such as funding by the SBIR program are rarely used.Scientist entrepreneurship is the sleeping giant of commercializing university research. More than one in four patenting NCI scientists have started a new firm.Two paths for commercialization of scientist research are identified - the TTO route and the entrepreneurial route. Scientists who select the TTO route by commercializing their research through assigning all patents to their university TTO account for 70 percent of NCI patenting scientists. Scientists who choose the entrepreneurial route to commercialize their research, in that they do not assign patents to their university TTO, comprise 30 percent of patenting NCI scientists.Social capital enhances the propensity for scientists to commercialize their research. The impact of social capital is particularly high for the commercialization mode of scientist entrepreneurship.For scientists who perceive that they are helped by their Technology Transfer Office, licensing is the most prevalent mode of commercialization. For scientists who perceive that they are not helped by their Technology Transfer Office, entrepreneurship emergences as a much more important mode of commercialization.Scientists choosing the entrepreneurial route to commercialize their research, by not assigning patents to their university to commercialize research, tend to rely on the commercialization mode of entrepreneurship. By contrast, scientists who select the TTO route by assigning their patents to the university tend to rely on the commercialization mode of licensing.

The decline of university patenting and the end of the Bayh–Dole effect

University patenting has been heralded as a symbol of changing relations between universities and their social environments. The Bayh–Dole Act of 1980 in the USA was eagerly promoted by the OECD as a recipe for the commercialization of university research, and the law was imitated by a number of national governments. However, since the 2000s university patenting in the most advanced economies has been on the decline both as a percentage and in absolute terms. In addition to possible saturation effects and institutional learning, we suggest that the institutional incentives for university patenting have disappeared with the new regime of university ranking. Patents and spin-offs are not counted in university rankings. In the new arrangements of university–industry–government relations, universities have become very responsive to changes in their relevant environments.

Research commercialisation via spin-off: the case of a non-elite university

Recent trends in technology transfer show an intensification of spin-off creation as a modality of university research commercialisation. In this paper, we analyse the evolution, objectives, resources and activities of a specialised unit – Technological Trampoline (TT) – in charge of new venture creation at the University of Girona (Catalonia-Spain). Our main objective is to identify the predominant strategy of spinning-off new ventures among the typologies of incubation strategies found by Clarysse et al. (2005) in European research institutions. The results show that the predominant typology at the University of Girona is the supportive model, although elements of the three typologies were identified. These results have a series of implications and recommendations at both university and TT level.

The Oxford model: The threats and opportunities of commercializing university research

This article describes the strategies and tactics that Oxford University has developed over a 10year period to reconcile the conflicting demands of the traditional university responsibilities of teaching and research with the socalled third stream needs of more direct economic development.

Government instruments to support the commercialization of university research: Lessons from Canada

Increased efforts are made in most industrialized countries to promote the commercialization of university research, for instance, through spin-off firm formation. Many studies have investigated the initiatives set up in the university sector that aim to support and facilitate the commercialization of research, such as technology transfer offices (TTO). However, few studies have looked at the increasing number of instruments introduced from the government. This paper reviews the Canadian support structure at federal level that aims to support the commercialization of publicly funded research. Two types of programs can be identified. Firstly, programs made to induce structural reforms within the university sector in order to improve the institutional capabilities to facilitate commercialization projects. Secondly, programs providing support to specific commercialization projects. This paper explores how these types of programs are operated at government level. An example of implementation at university level is also given. The lessons to be learned from the Canadian case are related to how the government initiatives encourage a bottom-up approach. This is accomplished by providing resources for direct use in commercialization projects or to develop professional expertise in technology transfer in the university sector, by experimenting with new initiatives, and finally by facilitating cooperation between commercializing organizations.

Australian Framework for the Commercialisation of University Scientific Research

Abstract Australia spends proportionally more on university R&D, particularly when compared with business expenditure on R&D, than almost any other advanced economy, which suggests that creating the right environment to encourage the commercialisation of Australian university research results is vital if Australia is to obtain the best economic results from its investment. In this paper a meta‐analysis is used to review literature from various sources available on the broad environment in which university research commercialisation is conducted in Australia in order to identify the key components of the environment and where change may encourage or promote better commercialisation outcomes.

Bringing science to life: introduction to the special issue

transform biomedical research into life-saving products and therapies. These relationships are mediated by a variety of knowledge transfer mechanisms, including partnership agreements, technology transfer offices, incubator facilities, and licensing agreements. Countries, regions, cities and universities have employed some or all of these mechanisms with varying degrees of success. However, there are few chances to synthesize the lessons learned from these diverse experiences. To encourage a better understanding of the commercialisation of university research, the Centre for Innovation Law and Policy and the Joseph L. Rotman School of Management, both at the University of Toronto, co-sponsored an international, multi-disciplinary conference entitled Bringing Science to Life from April 29 to May 1, 2005. Commercialisation policy is of profound importance for the Province of Ontario, and for the University of Toronto. At the University of Toronto, medical sciences are the largest research endeavour, benefiting from one of the largest medical research budgets in North America. No greater source of commercial opportunity exists there than in the biomedical field. Moreover, if the particularities

Academic patents and materials transfer agreements: substitutes or complements?

U.S. universities and academic medical centers long have been important performers of research in the life sciences, but their role as a source of patented intellectual property in this field has changed significantly in the late 20th and early 21st centuries. The expanded presence of formal intellectual property rights within the academic biomedical research enterprise has occasioned numerous expressions of concern from scholars, policymakers, and participants. One widely expressed fear involves the effects of patenting on the conduct of the scientific research enterprise. There is also considerable concern over the possible role of Materials Transfer Agreements (MTAs) in raising research “transaction costs”. On the other hand, others suggest that the contractual structure provided by MTAs may reduce transaction costs and facilitate exchange. This paper undertakes a preliminary analysis of the role of MTAs in the biomedical research enterprise at the University of Michigan, a significant patenter and licensor of biomedical intellectual property. We examine the relationship among invention disclosures, patenting, licensing, and the presence or absence of an MTA. Although data limitations make any conclusions tentative, our analysis suggests that the increased assertion of property rights by universities through MTAs does not appear to impede the commercialization of university research through patenting and licensing.

A longitudinal comparative study of university research commercialization performance: Australia, UK and USA

SummaryResearch commercialisation surveys are now available for Australia for Financial Years (FY) 2000 and 2002. This paper reviews longitudinal comparative data for research commercialisation performance in Australia, the United Kingdom and the USA. It discusses commercialisation performance measures, with a specific focus on entrepreneurial spin-off companies, and performance comparisons are made based on research expenditure in US dollars adjusted for purchasing power parity. Conclusions from these analyses suggest that, in recent years, Australian public agency performance in generating spin-offs per unit of research expenditure, adjusted for purchasing power parity, has been comparable or superior to some universities in other countries reviewed. However, Australian university revenue from intellectual property licensing royalties and research contracts has been below that of other countries studied. Analysis suggests that this results from problems in both demand – low business investment in R&D and hence low technology absorptive capacity – and supply, that is lack of time and lack of incentive to academic researchers to develop contacts with and meet the expectations of industry and other research users for technology that works.

Action-based entrepreneurship education

Innovativeness through the creation of new companies and new business areas are seen as key factors to achieve economic goals at the firm, the regional, and the national level. A restricting factor is the availability of competent individuals to manage projects and become entrepreneurs. Universities can address this need by increasing the motivation and competence of their graduates to become key persons in innovative and entrepreneurial activity. Entrepreneurship education has traditionally focused on teaching individuals, but many initiatives are increasingly becoming more action-oriented, emphasizing learning by doing. This paper presents a number of action-based activities at five Swedish universities. The cases show that entrepreneurship education focuses less on teaching individuals in a classroom setting and more on learning-by-doing activities in a group setting and a network context. Several initiatives have multiple goals, such as educating entrepreneurs, establishing new ventures, and commercializing university research. Implications for setting up an action-based entrepreneurship education program are provided.

Resources, capabilities, risk capital and the creation of university spin-out companies

The commercialization of university research has become an increasingly important issue, given concerns regarding licensing and the university's desire to maximize the returns to intellectual property (IP). In this paper, we assess the impact of university resources and routines/capabilities on the creation of spin-out companies. We find that both the number of spin-out companies created and the number of spin-out companies created with equity investment are significantly positively associated with expenditure on intellectual property protection, the business development capabilities of technology transfer offices and the royalty regime of the university. These results highlight the importance not just of resource stocks, but also of developing appropriate capabilities of technology transfer officers in spinning-out companies. The results suggest that universities and policy-makers need to devote attention to the training and recruitment of technology officers with the broad base of commercial skills.

Trends and transitions in the institutional environment for public and private science

The last quarter-century bore witness to a sea change in academic involvement with commerce. Widespread university-based efforts to identify, manage, and market intellectual property (IP) have accompanied broad shifts in the relationship between academic and proprietary approaches to the dissemination and use of science and engineering research. Such transformations are indicators of institutional changes at work in the environment faced by universities. This paper draws upon a fifteen-year panel (1981–1995) of university-level data for 87 research-intensive US campuses in order to document trends and transitions in relationships among multiple indicators of academic and commercial engagement. The institutional environment for public and private science is volatile, shifting in fits and starts from a situation conducive to organizational learning through high volume patenting to a more challenging arrangement that links indiscriminate pursuit of IP with declines in both the volume and impact of academic science. The pattern and timing of these transitions may support an enduring system of stratification that offers increasing returns to first-movers while limiting the opportunities available to universities that are later entrants to the commercial realm. Unpacking the systematic effects of university research commercialization requires focused attention on the sources and trajectories of profound institutional change.

SCIENCE AND ECONOMY: PROMOTING INTEGRATION WHILE POLICING THE BOUNDARY.

Policies promoting the commercialization of university research are countered by practices striving to keep science and economy at-a-distance. In theorizing this 'boundary work', Pierre Bourdieu's ...