Universal Rules Research Articles

Classification Accuracy Enhancement Based Machine Learning Models and Transform Analysis

The problem of leak detection in water pipeline network can be solved by utilizing a wireless sensor network based an intelligent algorithm. A new novel denoising process is proposed in this work. A comparison study is established to evaluate the novel denoising method using many performance indices. Hardyrectified thresholding with universal threshold selection rule shows the best obtained results among the utilized thresholding methods in the work with Enhanced signal to noise ratio (SNR) = 10.38 and normalized mean squared error (NMSE) = 0.1344. Machine learning methods are used to create models that simulate a pipeline leak detection system. A combined feature vector is utilized using wavelet and statistical factors to improve the proposed system performance.

Algebraic harmony in genoms of higher and lower organisms. Non-euclidean biosymmetries

The article is devoted to the study of the relationship between non-Euclidean symmetries in inherited morphogenetic and other bio-structures with algebraic features of information sequences of nucleotides in DNA heredity molecules in the genomes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. These genomic sequences obey the universal hyperbolic rules of the oligomer cooperative organization, which are associated with the harmonic progression of 1/1, 1/2, 1/3, …, 1/n. This progression has long been known and studied in various branches of mathematics and physics, and has now manifested itself in genetic informatics. The performed analysis of the harmonic progression revealed its connection with the double ratio known in geometry, which is the main invariant of projective geometry. This connection consists in the fact that the magnitude of the double ratio is the same and is equal to 4/3 for any four adjacent members of this progression. This fact of the connection of genetic informatics with the main invariant of projective geometry can be used to explain the implementation of non-Euclidean symmetries in genetically inherited structures of living bodies.

성적 자기결정권의 헌법적 함의 - 성폭력범죄의 판단기준인 성인지 감수성을 중심으로 -

This Article goes on the Constitutional Implications of the Right of Sexual Self-Determination - Focusing on the Gender Sensitivity as Criteria of Sexual Violence -. Currently the legally abstract concept of gender sensibility is being used in sexual assault crime trials causing controversy. Therefore in this paper we examined whether gender sensitivity can function as a means or criteria for protecting or guaranteeing the sexual self-determination of victims by properly realizing the role of sexual self-determination under the constitution in sexual violence criminal trials. In order for gender sensitivity to exert the normative power to objectively and effectively protect victims right to sexual selfdetermination in sexual violence trials it is necessary to establish a basis as a universal rule of thumb for the average point of view of victims which is the criterion for judgment. It is necessary to prepare clear guidelines on the content and limitations of gender sensitivity necessary to operate as a rule of thumb in sexual violence crime trials. It is pointed out that the theoretical dialogue has not yet progressed sufficiently to use relatively unfamiliar concepts such as gender sensitivity or surprise assault as a basis for a trial. To some extent the problem of expansion of punishment based on the abstractness of sensitivity will also be solved. In the future it is necessary to align the direction of the research on the definition of the concept of gender sensitivity and the development of a criterion for judgment. If research on this continues to accumulate gender sensibility can be sufficiently established as the standard for practically realizing the right to sexual self-determination under the constitution.

Simple rules and the Political Economy of Income Taxation: the strengths of a uniform expense rule

The complexity of the U.S. income tax system emerged in part from the differentiated fiscal treatment of specific investments and various sorts of business expenditures that, as Richard Wagner says, creates “a tax code so large that no one can read it and which creates nearly a unique tax liability for each taxpayer.” While tax scholarship documents the costs of complexity, current scholarship lacks a normative legal theory that could inspire an alternative to this practice of targeted credits and deduction rules. This paper builds on Epstein’s general Simple Rules framework to develop a radical simplification of income tax: the operationalization of a uniform expense rule, i.e., the application of a single deduction scheme across all expenses and investments. With regard to the trade-off between targeted rules and this general approach, this paper investigates the nature of a uniform expense rule and reveals its strengths with respect to political economy. First, a stable and universal expense rule would narrow the scope of politicians’ ability to concentrate benefits on special-interest groups and would limit rent-seeking. The abolition of deviating rules for investments would restrict the scope of tax optimization, meaning that individual and corporate tax liabilities would be more determined by the ability to pay them. The same policy would save companies and government millions of dollars that they currently spend on tax compliance and administration of the tax system, respectively. Last, a deduction rule that applies across all businesses and industries would be less price distortive and thus would enhance the quality of the price signal.

Disentangling the Contribution of Each Descriptive Characteristic of Every Single Mutation to Its Functional Effects.

Mutational effects predictions continue to improve in accuracy as advanced artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms are trained on exhaustive experimental data. The next natural questions to ask are if it is possible to gain insights into which attribute of the mutation contributes how much to the mutational effects and if one can develop universal rules for mapping the descriptors to mutational effects. In this work, we mainly address the former aspect using a framework of interpretable AI. Relations between the physicochemical descriptors and their contributions to the mutational effects are extracted by analyzing the data on 29,832 variants from eight systematic deep mutational scan studies. An opposite trend in the dependence of fitness and solubility on the distance of the amino acid from the catalytic sites could be extracted and quantified. The dependence of the mutational effect contributions on the position-specific scoring matrix (PSSM) score for the amino acid after mutation or the BLOSUM score of the substitution showed universal trends. Our attempts in the present work to explain the quantitative differences in the dependence on conservation and SASA across proteins were not successful. The work nevertheless brings transparency into the predictions and development of rules, and will hopefully lead to empirically uncovering the universalities among these rules.

Outcomes of patients with OHCA of presumed cardiac etiology that did not achieve prehospital restoration of spontaneous circulation: The All-Japan Utstein Registry experience

BackgroundCorrect identification of futile prehospital resuscitation for out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) may reduce unnecessary transports. Prehospital return of spontaneous circulation (ROSC) is considered by many to be an important predictor of outcome. The purpose of this study was to evaluate OHCA victims without prehospital ROSC characteristics and their outcomes in relation to the universal Termination of Resuscitation (TOR) rule. MethodsA retrospective, population-based review of OHCA victims without prehospital ROSC from January 1, 2010 to December 31, 2017 in the All-Japan Utstein Registry. We compared those that met the universal TOR rule and those that did not for the primary outcome: one-month survival with neurologically favorable Cerebral Performance Category (CPC) 1 or 2. Results989,929 OHCA cases, 18 years of age or older, were registered in the All-Japan Utstein Registry and 525,801 cases were of presumed cardiac origin and had no prehospital ROSC. Of these, the one-month CPC was 1 or 2 for 3957 cases (0.8%). In the ‘no ROSC’ group who also met the TOR rule, the number of cases was 433,571 with a one-month survival of 0.9% (3799 cases), and the proportion with a CPC 1or 2 was 0.2% (699 cases). ConclusionsContinued resuscitation and transport of cases with no field ROSC who fulfill the TOR rule is futile and could be considered for adoption in Japan.

The Role of Canalization and Plasticity in the Evolution of Musical Creativity.

Creativity is defined as the ability to generate something new and valuable. From a biological point of view this can be seen as an adaptation in response to environmental challenges. Although music is such a diverse phenomenon, all people possess a set of abilities that are claimed to be the products of biological evolution, which allow us to produce and listen to music according to both universal and culture-specific rules. On the one hand, musical creativity is restricted by the tacit rules that reflect the developmental interplay between genetic, epigenetic and cultural information. On the other hand, musical innovations seem to be desirable elements present in every musical culture which suggests some biological importance. If our musical activity is driven by biological needs, then it is important for us to understand the function of musical creativity in satisfying those needs, and also how human beings have become so creative in the domain of music. The aim of this paper is to propose that musical creativity has become an indispensable part of the gene-culture coevolution of our musicality. It is suggested that the two main forces of canalization and plasticity have been crucial in this process. Canalization is an evolutionary process in which phenotypes take relatively constant forms regardless of environmental and genetic perturbations. Plasticity is defined as the ability of a phenotype to generate an adaptive response to environmental challenges. It is proposed that human musicality is composed of evolutionary innovations generated by the gradual canalization of developmental pathways leading to musical behavior. Within this process, the unstable cultural environment serves as the selective pressure for musical creativity. It is hypothesized that the connections between cortical and subcortical areas, which constitute cortico-subcortical circuits involved in music processing, are the products of canalization, whereas plasticity is achieved by the means of neurological variability. This variability is present both at the level of an individual structure’s enlargement in response to practicing (e.g., the planum temporale) and within the involvement of neurological structures that are not music-specific (e.g., the default mode network) in music processing.

Designing Rules and Optimization of Triboelectric Nanogenerator Arrays

AbstractA triboelectric nanogenerator (TENG) is an effective means for the conversion of mechanical energy into electricity. Although Maxwell's displacement current is the underline mechanism of TENGs, the spatial and temporal variations of the electric field and electric displacement remain elusive, which prohibits an effective optimization of the energy conversion process. Here, the electric field distribution and energy dynamics of TENGs is determined using 3D mathematical modeling. The electrical energies stored in TENGs and extracted into the external circuit are calculated quantitatively whereby the ratio of the two, defined as the output efficiency, is obtained. Then, the power density and energy density of TENGs are defined. Utilizing the principle of virtual work, the minimum required external force–time relationship is evaluated. The influence of device parameters, geometry, and optimum conditions are discussed systematically so as to determine general optimization guidelines for TENGs. In addition, although the fringing electric field is practically inevitable, adjustments of the gap distance between neighboring TENG devices to assure that an optimized fringing electric field is “leaked”, is demonstrated to lead to improvement in a TENG array. Then, for the first time, this work presents universal design rules and holistic optimization strategies for the network structure of TENGs.

A new shade dispersion technique compatible for symmetrical and unsymmetrical photovoltaic (PV) arrays

Partial shade occurrences still prevail as a major obstacle for maximum power generation from photovoltaic (PV) power plants, particularly in urban areas. Therefore, augmenting the power output during such conditions has become a prerequisite in PV installations to guarantee reliable power conversion efficiency. In this context, PV array reconfiguration utilizing physical relocation techniques is a cost effective as well as promising solution. Though many such techniques have been developed in recent times, the applicability of those solutions to real-time power plants is questionable, predominantly due to: 1) incompatibility to unsymmetrical PV arrays, 2) impractical displacement of PV modules to distant columns, 3) necessity of large number of physical relocations, 4) need for lengthy interconnection ties and 5) non-availability of universal relocation rules. In this context, this paper proposes a new reconfiguration technique that can be applied globally irrespective of the size, type, and rating of PV arrays. In principle, the technique evolves from a mathematical concept to arrange PV modules diagonally along the opposite corners of the smallest rectangle that can be developed using squares. Graphically, the proposed technique emulates the vertical downward movement of knights in a chess board. More importantly, the relocation procedure is carefully designed such that each PV module in the array is relocated with in its respective column itself, thereby reducing the overall number of relocations required significantly. Distinctive from existing strategies, the proposed method can be applied to both unsymmetrical and symmetrical PV arrays without any arbitrary assumptions. For validation, extensive simulations considering numerous shade patterns as well as hardware experimentations have been carried out, and the results are compared with prominent techniques available in literature. The results attained show an average instantaneous power difference of 0.3 kW and 0.8 kW respectively for an 8.1 kW system, compared with its counterparts and conventional interconnection schemes.

Workplace universalism and the integration of migrant workers and refugees in Germany

AbstractThis article looks into differences and similarities between former labour migrants' and today's refugees' workplace integration and asks what role German industrial relations play in integration processes. Drawing on more than 150 interviews, document analysis and three employee attitude surveys, conducted in the course of three research projects, a crucial finding is that despite some differences between labour migrants and refugees in terms of labour market access, education and support programmes, in both cases, workplace integration often works better than integration in German society in general. The integration of both groups is fostered by ‘pragmatic cooperation’ of workers, which is based on everyday encounters and promotes collegiality, and by universal rules for all workers, including the active and passive right to elect works councils. German industrial relations provide the institutional frame for this ‘workplace universalism’. However, workplace integration is under pressure due to polarized societal discourses and eroding industrial relations.

“Thinking, Judging, Noticing, Feeling”: John W. Tukey against the Mechanization of Inferential Knowledge

During the past half-century, a set of statistical techniques and ideas about inference have experienced a remarkable scientific success. Significance at the 5 percent level has come to mark a clear and distinct criterion for scientific knowledge in a wide range of fields. Recently, however, this convention has been embroiled in controversy, as the relentless pursuit of significance has produced a range of well-known scientific abuses. Instead of staking out a position in these debates, this article analyzes the history of epistemological values underlying them. It focuses on an earlier critic of the misuse of statistical tests: John W. Tukey. Speaking to behavioral scientists in the middle of the twentieth century, Tukey insisted that reducing inference to a set of universal rules or mechanical procedures to eliminate uncertainty was a pursuit doomed to failure. Scientists needed to accept the irreducibility of individual judgments and decisions in data analysis, even when they risked charges of subjectivism or arbitrariness. For Tukey, the enforcement of scientific consensus and even the value of objectivity must yield to empirical judgments and an ethic of individual conscience. These values were informed by his comparative understanding of the history of science, which reserved a special place for empiricism in younger sciences. Reconstructing Tukey’s work offers an alternative perspective on the quantitative, formal objectivity of the postwar sciences as well as the present, where big data and machine learning have raised thorny new problems for statistical inference and scientific expertise.

Comparison of Performance Among Forwarding Strategies in CCN: Disaster Scenarios

Content-Centric Networking (CCN) is a novel modern architecture for the Internet in the future. This architecture concentrates on content retrieval and dissemination solution for communication models. Forwarding strategies are decision-making strategies whose aim is to define the forwarding destination, i.e., where and when request packets will be redirected. They are considered as the most crucial component in a network environment because of their contribution to determining which strategy is suitable to adopt in accordance with the environment and the applications. These strategies have not been initially designed to support complex applications and interactions that require Interest packet send rate, CCN table sizing, refreshing Pending Interest Table (PIT), and Content Store (CS), such as disaster scenarios, social network, and smart applications. The goal of this work is to evaluate the performance of CCN forwarding strategies in disaster scenarios. A network simulator (i.e., ndnSIM) is utilized to measure the performance in many scenarios by modifying Interest packet rate, PIT size, and CS size. Evaluation results achieved after performing the study on the selected strategies are considerably enhanced for the metrics cache hit, PIT size, Interest retransmissions, number of hops, delay, and Interest delivery. The main significance of this work is that it formulates a universal rule as the main function, which can adopt a suitable forwarding strategy accurately in accordance with the PIT and CS conditions and Interest packet rate, thus leading to increased Interest packet satisfaction utilization without increasing Interest packet retransmission and response delay.

Macroecological patterns of forest structure and allometric scaling in mangrove forests

AbstractAimMangrove wetlands span broad geographical gradients, resulting in functionally diverse tree communities. We asked whether latitudinal variation, allometric scaling relationships and species composition influence mangrove forest structure and biomass allocation across biogeographical regions and distinct coastal morphologies.LocationGlobal.Time periodPresent.Major taxa studiedMangrove ecosystems.MethodsWe built the largest field‐based dataset on mangrove forest structure and biomass to date (c. 2,800 plots from 67 countries) to address macroecological questions pertaining to structural and functional diversity of mangroves spanning biogeographical and coastal morphology gradients. We used frequentist inference statistics and machine learning models to determine environmental drivers that control biomass allocation within and across mangrove communities globally.ResultsAllometric scaling relationships and forest structural complexity were consistent across biogeographical and coastal morphology gradients, suggesting that mangrove biomass is controlled by regional forcings rather than by latitude or species composition. For instance, nearly 40% of the global variation in biomass was explained by regional climate and hydroperiod, revealing nonlinear thresholds that control biomass accumulation across broad geographical gradients. Furthermore, we found that ecosystem‐level carbon stocks (average 401 ± 48 MgC/ha, covering biomass and the top 1 m of soil) varied little across diverse coastal morphologies, reflecting regional bottom‐up geomorphic controls that shape global patterns in mangrove biomass apportioning.Main conclusionsOur findings reconcile views of wetland and terrestrial forest macroecology. Similarities in stand structural complexity and cross‐site size–density relationships across multiscale environmental gradients show that resource allocation in mangrove ecosystems is independent of tree size and invariant to species composition or latitude. Mangroves follow a universal fractal‐based scaling relationship that describes biomass allocation for several other terrestrial tree‐dominated communities. Understanding how mangroves adhere to these universal allometric rules can improve our ability to account for biomass apportioning and carbon stocks in response to broad geographical gradients.

A multi-robot task allocation algorithm based on universal gravity rules

A multi-robot task allocation algorithm based on universal gravity rules

Molecular-Level Control of the Intersheet Distance and Electronic Coupling between 2D Semiconducting and Metallic Nanosheets: Establishing Design Rules for High-Performance Hybrid Photocatalysts.

Hybridization with conductive nanospecies has attracted intense research interest as a general effective means to improve the photocatalytic functionalities of nanostructured materials. To establish universal design rules for high‐performance hybrid photocatalysts, correlations between versatile roles of conductive species and interfacial interaction between hybridized species are systematically investigated through fine‐control of intersheet distance between photocatalytically active TiO2 and metallic reduced graphene oxide (rGO)/RuO2 nanosheets. Molecular‐level tailoring of intersheet distance and electronic coupling between 2D nanosheets can be successfully achieved by restacking of colloidal nanosheet mixture with variable‐sized organic intercalants. While the shortest intersheet distance between restacked TiO2 and rGO nanosheets leads to the highest visible‐light‐driven photocatalytic activity, the best UV–vis photocatalyst performance occurs for moderate intersheet spacing. These results highlight the greater sensitivity of photoinduced electronic excitation to the intersheet distance than that of interfacial charge transfer. The rGO nanosheet can function as effective charge transport pathway and cocatalyst within ≈1.7 nm distance from the semiconducting nanosheet, and as efficient stabilizer for hybridized photocatalyst within ≈1.8 nm. The present study underscores that the intercalative restacking of colloidal nanosheet mixture with intercalants enables molecular‐level control of distance between 2D inorganic/graphene nanosheets, which provides a rational design strategy for high‐performance hybrid photocatalysts.

Effect of Concentrated Salts Solutions on the Stability of Immobilized Enzymes: Influence of Inactivation Conditions and Immobilization Protocol.

This paper aims to investigate the effects of some salts (NaCl, (NH4)2SO4 and Na2SO4) at pH 5.0, 7.0 and 9.0 on the stability of 13 different immobilized enzymes: five lipases, three proteases, two glycosidases, and one laccase, penicillin G acylase and catalase. The enzymes were immobilized to prevent their aggregation. Lipases were immobilized via interfacial activation on octyl agarose or on glutaraldehyde-amino agarose beads, proteases on glyoxyl agarose or glutaraldehyde-amino agarose beads. The use of high concentrations of salts usually has some effects on enzyme stability, but the intensity and nature of these effects depends on the inactivation pH, nature and concentration of the salt, enzyme and immobilization protocol. The same salt can be a stabilizing or a destabilizing agent for a specific enzyme depending on its concentration, inactivation pH and immobilization protocol. Using lipases, (NH4)2SO4 generally permits the highest stabilities (although this is not a universal rule), but using the other enzymes this salt is in many instances a destabilizing agent. At pH 9.0, it is more likely to find a salt destabilizing effect than at pH 7.0. Results confirm the difficulty of foreseeing the effect of high concentrations of salts in a specific immobilized enzyme.

Implikasi Kebijakan Ekonomi Umar Ibn Khattab terhadap Kebijakan Ekonomi Masa Kini

In the 1970s and 1980s, scientific studies on Islamic economics and finance in the Middle East and other Muslim countries were initiated, which resulted in the establishment of the Islamic Development Bank and banks and other institutions labeled Islam. In fact, the scope of Islamic economics is much broader than just Islamic finance. The author agrees with Taqyuddin An-Nabhani, that generations of Muslims have been fascinated with Capitalist thinking, because they see its success, without fully understanding the reality of its thoughts, even to the inferior feeling (inferiority) of Islam's ability to produce solutions. The purpose of this research is to examine Umar ibn Khattab's policies in distributing Baitul Maal property and to find out the implications of Umar ibn Khattab's policies on today's economy. This research is a literature research (Library Research) with a historical approach, and collects data from primary materials, namely books concerning Umar ibn Khattab's policies and secondary data, namely relevant supporting books. The stages of this research are the analysis of text or phenomena into its components, grouping the same statements and actions into one component, identifying rules that unite various categories, identifying universal rules that construct statements and inter-relations of actions, and systematics of rules obtained through text procedures. or action. The results of this study, namely that during his caliphate, Umar ibn Khattab had made the necessary regulations and took every possible step to ensure that no one was left to starve, without clothing or a place to live in an Islamic country, including the disabled, helpless. because of illness, old age, widows, unemployment, poor people, people who need assistance regardless of caste, skin color, or beliefs are given financial assistance from Baitul Maal. Umar ibn Khattab's policies can be implied in today's economy, such as the prohibition of selling other people's property without the knowledge of the owner, government intervention in the market, prohibition of hoarding assets, reviving dead land, land ownership limits, on found goods, property that is lawful for the government, and criteria for people who have the right to be prioritized for holding and holding government mandates.

Уменьшение размера имущественной ответственности: постановка проблемы

The article deals with an issue of reduction of liability in the civil law. The Civil Code of Russian Federation includes handful rules, which allow the court to reduce liability of a debtor. However, such rules are applicable to different events and there are no universal rules applied to all events of property (economical) liability. For instance the court ought to reduce liability of a debtor in case both a creditor and the debtor are failed an obligation as well as the court is entitled to reduce liability of the debtor when the creditor facilitated increasing an amount of his losses. The court reduces an amount of penalties in event of such the amount is obviously not equal to the result of aftermath that an obligation was failed by debtor. In cases related to damnification the court has the right to reduce liability of tortfeasor based on his property status unless they caused damage intentionally. Yet there are many rules of property liability simultaneously do not allow to reduce such liability, for instance liability for violation of intellectual rights, rights of consumers (when a seller refuses to fulfil a demand of a consumer on his own free will), etc. Since there are sort of such rules, the court occasionally forces to apply the art. 333 of the Civil Code to Russian Federation, meanwhile the legal practice of applying this article is inconsistent. The reason of that inconsistency is there are no legal rules of reducing liability which regard all types and events of property (economical) liability. However the legal practice has a wide experience and knows many methods of reducing property (economical) liability. The author points out that it is time to formulate universal rules of reducing liability applied to all events of property (economical) liability on the basis of scattered rules of the Civil Code of Russian Federation and legal practice of its application.

Non-Euclidean Biosymmetries and Algebraic Harmony in Genomes of Higher and Lower Organisms

The article is devoted to the study of the relationship of non-Euclidean symmetries in inherited biostructures with algebraic features of information nucleotide sequences in DNA molecules in the genomes of eukaryotes and prokaryotes. These genomic sequences obey the universal hyperbolic rules of the oligomer cooperative organization, which are associated with the harmonic progression 1/1, 1/2, 1/3,.., 1/n. The progression has long been known and studied in various branches of mathematics and physics. Now it has manifested itself in genetic informatics. The performed analysis of the harmonic progression revealed its connection with the cross-ratio, which is the main invariant of projective geometry. This connection consists in the fact that the magnitude of the cross-ratio is the same and is equal to 4/3 for any four adjacent members of this progression. The long DNA nucleotide sequences have fractal-like structure with so called epi-chains, whose structures are also related to the harmonic progression and the projective-geometrical symmetries. The received results are related additionally to a consideration of DNA double helix as helical antenna. This fact of the connection of genetic informatics with the main invariant of projective geometry can be used to explain the implementation of some non-Euclidean symmetries in genetically inherited structures of living bodies.

Machine learning to tame divergent density functional approximations: a new path to consensus materials design principles.

Virtual high-throughput screening (VHTS) with density functional theory (DFT) and machine-learning (ML)-acceleration is essential in rapid materials discovery. By necessity, efficient DFT-based workflows are carried out with a single density functional approximation (DFA). Nevertheless, properties evaluated with different DFAs can be expected to disagree for cases with challenging electronic structure (e.g., open-shell transition-metal complexes, TMCs) for which rapid screening is most needed and accurate benchmarks are often unavailable. To quantify the effect of DFA bias, we introduce an approach to rapidly obtain property predictions from 23 representative DFAs spanning multiple families, “rungs” (e.g., semi-local to double hybrid) and basis sets on over 2000 TMCs. Although computed property values (e.g., spin state splitting and frontier orbital gap) differ by DFA, high linear correlations persist across all DFAs. We train independent ML models for each DFA and observe convergent trends in feature importance, providing DFA-invariant, universal design rules. We devise a strategy to train artificial neural network (ANN) models informed by all 23 DFAs and use them to predict properties (e.g., spin-splitting energy) of over 187k TMCs. By requiring consensus of the ANN-predicted DFA properties, we improve correspondence of computational lead compounds with literature-mined, experimental compounds over the typically employed single-DFA approach.