Universal Design For Learning Research Articles

Accessibility and Inclusivity in Online Education: A Comparative Study of Policies and Practices in Australia

Purpose: The aim of the study was to investigate the accessibility and inclusivity in online education: a comparative study of policies and practices in Australia.
 Methodology: This study adopted a desk methodology. A desk study research design is commonly known as secondary data collection. This is basically collecting data from existing resources preferably because of its low cost advantage as compared to a field research. Our current study looked into already published studies and reports as the data was easily accessed through online journals and libraries.
 Findings: The study compared Australian policies and practices in online education accessibility and inclusivity, revealing notable gaps in implementation despite progress. It emphasized the necessity of comprehensive policies and ongoing educator training to address diverse student needs effectively. Overall, it highlighted the importance of continual improvement to ensure equitable access for all students in online education.
 Unique Contribution to Theory, Practice and Policy: Social model of disability, universal design for learning (UDL) & critical pedagogy may be used to anchor future studies on the accessibility and inclusivity in online education: a comparative study of policies and practices in Australia. Develop guidelines and best practices for inclusive course design and delivery in online education, tailored to the Australian context. Advocate for the integration of accessibility and inclusivity mandates into national and institutional policies governing online education in Australia.

Students’ Experiences When Using Real-Time Automated Captions and Subtitles in Live Online Presentations: A Phenomenological Study

According to the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework, as a text-based alternative to auditory information in videos or presentations, captions can make the content equally accessible, and multilingual subtitles can promote a cross-linguistic understanding of the content. We conducted a phenomenological study to understand the common meaning of the participants’ experiences when using real-time automated captions/subtitles during live online class presentations. Twenty-four remote student participants were placed in three study groups. All participants were fluent in spoken and written English, eight could read in one or more additional languages, and none had a hearing disability. We used Microsoft PowerPoint Present Live via Zoom to deliver the online presentation to each group with real-time automated captions/subtitles, and then we conducted a focus group session with each group. Ten themes emerged and were clustered into three overarching themes: challenges, benefits, and interactions with subtitles. Overall, participants described a positive experience, perceiving the captions/subtitles as useful and accurate. Participants found the tool easy to use and highlighted the benefits of using captions/subtitles, such as providing access to live instruction for a wide audience and reinforcing learning for diverse student types. While they were able to troubleshoot connectivity and technological issues encountered, they experienced an apparent split-attention effect and noted limitations in the tool's inability to recognize different dialects. Findings contribute to educational research related to accessible live instruction in multilingual settings and could aid educators in selecting and integrating tools with real-time captioning/subtitling, in line with the UDL guidelines.

Increasing accessibility in language education – the SCALED project

This paper aims to familiarise the readers with the motivations and pedagogical principles behind the outcomes of the ‘SCALED – Supporting Content and Language Learning Across Diversity’ project and with the outcomes themselves. These include an open online course for initial teacher training and continuing professional development of language teachers, accompanied by a methodological guide and a report on good practices in inclusive language education and inclusive foreign language teacher training. The SCALED project addresses the needs of both the academic and school communities, aiding educa- tors in proactively eliminating existing and potential barriers to language learning. It incorporates empirically validated models and approaches, such as Universal Design for Learning (UDL) and the integration of indi- vidual accommodations and adjustments in learning and assessment conditions. The project seeks to advance fairness and counter discrimination and marginalization by fostering inclusive practices in teacher training and language education via enhanced accessibility. Accessible language learning environments can empower individuals with diverse needs, including special educational needs, and enable them to unleash their abilities and potential. Accessibility constitutes a leading theme that transpires in all SCALED course modules and materials, from accessible instruction and assessment, through accessible and usable digital language materials (docu- ments and multimedia) and online learning platforms to accessible and supportive language learning environ- ments (e.g. assistive technology) for learners with special educational needs resulting from dyslexia, ADHD, autism, blindness and visual impairments, and diverse cultural and language backgrounds.

Considering the sensory and social needs of disabled students in higher education: A call to return to the roots of universal design

Universal Design for Learning is a pedagogical approach that aims ‘to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn’ (CAST website, n.d.). Originating in the context of K12 education in the United States, the core principles involve the provision of multiple means of representation, engagement, and action/expression. Despite high instructor satisfaction with UDL, evidence of effectiveness for students’ learning is insufficient. Effectiveness aside, the purpose of this policy research note is to describe additional issues in UDL specifically relating to disabled students. First, I argue that the core tenet of UDL to meet all learners’ needs by emphasizing variability in approaches to learning (and consequently avoiding reference to ‘disability’) may inadvertently marginalize disabled students. Second, I argue that the focus on instructional design as a panacea to meet the needs of ‘all people’, including disabled students, is insufficient. This potentially distracts well-intentioned educators from more substantive challenges experienced by disabled students, relating to the built environment. Until the sensory and social needs of disabled students are met, instructional approaches like UDL cannot provide an equitable learning experience for many disabled students. Therefore, I argue that higher education leaders should attend to the sensory and social environments of university campuses before retrofitting inclusive pedagogies to the current typical university campus.

Effectiveness of Universal Design of Learning for Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities - A Review

A special education programme is required for kids who have intellectual disabilities. To help these kids learn how to cooperate while engaging in activities, various activities like music, dance, yoga arts and crafts etc. may be offered. They need to teach practical skills and daily tasks rather than academic knowledge. The misconception is that institutional training is the only way to teach children with intellectual disabilities. To learn about autonomous living, they require attention and inclusion. The Govt also offers additional services and educational opportunities for children with intellectual disabilities. Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework that assists educators in minimizing obstacles and enhancing learning opportunities for every student. It is an instructional approach designed to cater to the diverse needs and capabilities of all learners, eliminating unnecessary challenges in the learning journey. Several pieces of literature have been published, illustrating the efficacy of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) in enhancing learning across various subjects for children with intellectual disabilities. Evidence suggests that UDL aids in accessing the general education curriculum, resulting in improved learning outcomes and growth in essential skills such as reading, writing, comprehension, decision-making, life skills, and social skills. These advancements are pivotal in enabling students to lead dignified and standard lives. Researchers in the field recommend further investigation to solidify the evidence supporting the assertions made in this paper. Keywords: Universal design of learning, Children with intellectual disabilities, Autonomous, Hurdles

The Watermelon Meow Meow Outbreak: Enhancing Public Health Education Through Real-World Experience, Statistical Programming, and Infectious Disease Modeling

There is a need for public health undergraduates to acquire skills in data collection, statistical programming, and infectious diseases modeling. Public health officials and accreditation bodies underline the importance of a cumulative, “real-world” experience as part of a student's education. The Watermelon Meow Meow (WMM) outbreak is a cumulative experience that teaches upper-level undergraduate/graduate students about infectious disease dynamics by asking students to: participate in a fictitious outbreak; collect and analyze outbreak data. Innovative to our approach is the use of DataCamp as a technology to support learning statistical programming and framing WMM under principles of Universal Design Learning (UDL). We evaluated 27/32 student responses using a mixed-methods approach. We found WMM: augmented traditional lecture-style instruction and increased student awareness of heterogeneous risks associated with infectious diseases. We identified three student typologies: students who learn best from (i) integrating traditional lecture plus WMM, (ii) participating in WMM data collection but not coding, and (iii) from lecture and classroom-based learning from peers. WMM is an example of a more general approach – which we call Slate, Operate, Translate – that instructors can follow to combine technology and a hands-on experiment to satisfy both UDL principles and increasing demands of public health education in a mathematics/statistics class.

Access and Participation: The use of Technologies as tools for Inclusion by Spanish University Lecturers

Spanish face-to-face universities experience constant challenges that threaten the inclusion of students with disabilities. Adopting inclusive pedagogies can support universities to develop a more inclusive approach. This paper explores the extent to which the use of technology influences the inclusive pedagogies of Spanish university lecturers. In particular, we focus on how lecturers use technologies to promote student participation and accessibility in Spanish institution. A qualitative methodology involving semi-structured in-depth interviews with 42 Spanish face-to-face universities experience constant challenges that threaten the inclusion of students with disabilities. Adopting inclusive pedagogies can support universities to develop a more inclusive approach. This paper explores the extent to which the use of technology influences the inclusive pedagogies of Spanish university lecturers. In particular, we focus on how lecturers use technologies to promote student participation and accessibility in Spanish institution. A qualitative methodology involving semi-structured in-depth interviews with 42 Spanish university lecturers regarding their inclusive practices and use of technology was employed. The results contribute four fundamental findings: (a) Lecturers who practise inclusive pedagogy can be differentiated as proactive or reactive; (b) University lecturers place greater emphasis on the use of technology as a promoter of accessibility rather than as a tool to promote participation; (c) There is a disconnect between knowledge of universal design for learning and the use of the technologies; and (d) The full transformative potential of technologies to facilitate the inclusion of learners with disabilities is not being harnessed. All these results allow us to highlight some key points about the use of technological tools in the application of inclusive pedagogy in university classrooms. Implications for practice or policy: • Spanish face-to-face universities still need to harness the full transformative potential of technologies to facilitate student inclusion. • There is a need for more professional development programmes within higher education institutions that focus on the potential of technologies to promote inclusion. • Universities have an important role to play in promoting the use of technological tools to ensure accessibility and participation of all students, especially students with disabilities.

Universal Design for Learning in Low- and Middle-Income Countries: A Review of the Literature

ABSTRACT The growing importance of Universal Design for Learning (UDL) as a framework for implementing inclusive education is acknowledged in the Global Education Monitoring report of 2020. There is a lack of evidence and little guidance on how to effectively implement UDL in low- and middle-income countries (LMIC). In this context, a scoping review of the literature was commissioned by CBM Christian Blind Mission, an international non-governmental organisation, to look for evidence of current UDL practices in LMIC. The aim was to identify existing research and current gaps, and make recommendations for capacity-development resources and materials in implementing UDL in LMIC. Twenty-one articles were included in this review, of which 13 were from the African continent. While eight of these 13 articles came from South Africa, other LMIC were represented by one or two papers each. The following themes emerged deductively: capacity building of teachers, levels of technology, diversity of target audience, role of communities and families, addressing systemic inequality, and policy supporting implementation. Inductive analysis was used to consider areas that did not fit into these predetermined themes, and additional themes emerged: disability and UDL, and challenges of implementing UDL. These themes are discussed and recommendations made.

A Panel Data Analysis of Using Multiple Content Modalities during Adaptive Learning Activities

This study investigates the effect of offering multiple means of representing content, one aspect of Universal Design for Learning (UDL). Students across the full range of the dis/ability spectrum all too often struggle to achieve course success. UDL-based course design promises to help students with disabilities (whether disclosed or not) as well as help all students, but research is needed to verify UDL’s specific benefits for student learning outcomes. This study aims to better understand the efficacy of representing course content using multiple means, which is one aspect of UDL pertaining to perception. Data were gathered from over 50 online courses in 14 subjects across the undergraduate curriculum taught with an adaptive learning system at a women’s institution. A panel data analysis with almost 200,000 cases of student learning activities investigated the effect of representing content in multiple ways (i.e., text, video, audio, interactive, or mixed content presentation format). When students used multiple modalities, a positive effect was found on student learning measures of knowledge gained within the adaptive system. The results have implications for future UDL-related research, as well as faculty development and curricular design.

Learning analytics and the Universal Design for Learning (UDL): A clustering approach

In the context of inclusive education, Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is a framework used worldwide to create learning opportunities accessible to all learners. While much research focused on the design and students' perceptions of UDL-based learning settings, studies on students’ usage patterns in UDL-guided elements, particularly in digital environments, are still scarce. Therefore, we analyze and cluster the usage patterns of 9th and 10th graders in a web-based learning platform called I3Learn.The platform focuses on chemistry learning, and UDL principles guide its design. We collected the temporal usage patterns of UDL-guided elements of 384 learners in detailed log files. The collected data includes the time spent using video and/or text as a source of information, working on learning tasks with or without help and working on self-assessments. We used Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) to identify relevant factors in the observed usage behaviors. Based on the factor loadings, we extracted features for k-means clustering and named the resulting groups based on their usage patterns and learner characteristics. The EFA revealed four factors suggesting that learners remain consistent in selecting UDL-guided elements that require a decision (video or text, tasks with or without help). Based on these four factors, the cluster analysis identifies six different groups. We discuss these results as a starting point to provide individualized learning support through further artificial intelligence applications and inform educators about learner activity through a dashboard.

The The Advantages and Challenges of Inclusive Education: Striving for Equity in the Classroom

Inclusive education is the process of integrating individuals with disabilities into a regular classroom, and it helps reflect the world’s commitment to equal educational opportunities as outlined in UNCRPD. It emphasizes the importance of embracing diversity and promoting acceptance among students who are impaired. This paper examines why it is important to include learners with impairments into mainstream classes and the favorable attitudes towards inclusive education among teachers, administrators and students. Many barriers hinder its implementation such as lack of professional development for teachers, insufficient facilities for learning, difficulty in creating relationships between classmates, inadequate parent participation, and absence of legislations and policies that are aligned towards its practice. The role of several educational theories like social constructivism, humanistic approach and universal design for learning (UDL) have been discussed to show their relevance in addressing challenges found in inclusive learning. Social Constructivism shows how collaborative work can be used inside the classrooms so that peer rejection will be lessened. The approach that is humanistic stresses about the comprehensive growth all individuals while addressing the needs of learners with disabilities. UDL focuses on promoting an accessible learning environment and eliminating physical barriers to foster successful growth for all students. Moreover, this article underlines relevance of awareness on how children with impairments can be incorporated into conventional classrooms and benefits which inclusive education has for both disabled and non disabled students. In conclusion, this paper emphasized the transformative nature of inclusive education in fostering a learning atmosphere that promotes diversity, empathy, and acceptance, contributing to students’ overall development.

Cultivating Positive Classroom Environments: Exploring the Efficacy of Immersive Technologies in Removing Barriers to Learning Among Primary School Students

This is a small-scale qualitative participatory research study conducted in two large primary schools in Ireland with classes for autistic students. The paper reports how a menu of immersive technology learning experiences was thoughtfully designed and employed with autistic children who were communicating through their behavior an aversion to the learning environment and many aspects of conventional learning activities. Through this study, students were enabled to explore and respond to learning through immersive learning environments. The Universal Design for Learning (UDL) infused design of these immersive learning experiences was tailored to remove barriers to learning, thus counteracting the observable disruptive behaviors of the students. The study explores a purposive sample of six participating teachers’ perspectives on the affective gains (engagement, motivation, and self-efficacy) achieved through the use of these immersive experiences and their impact on students’ use of disruptive behaviors as a means of communication. Semi-structured interviews with teacher participants were analyzed using the theory and a general inductive approach for qualitative data analysis. This paper contributes to the literature on the use of immersive technologies in education and highlights the potential benefits of incorporating these technologies into the classroom.

Virtual Worlds for Learning in Metaverse: A Narrative Review

As digital technologies continue to evolve, they offer unprecedented opportunities to transform traditional educational paradigms. Virtual worlds offer a dynamic and immersive platform for fostering sustainability education, bridging the gap between theoretical knowledge and practical application. In these interactive environments, students can engage with complex ecological systems and sustainability challenges in a risk-free setting, allowing for experimentation and exploration that would be impractical or impossible in the real world. This study aims to investigate the application of various types of virtual worlds in educational settings, examine their characteristics and potential, and explore how they foster critical 21st-century skills like critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration. This paper comprehensively explores various types of virtual worlds—Adventure World, Simulation World, Creative World, Role-Playing World, and Collaborative World—assessing their impact on educational processes and outcomes. Adventure Worlds, with narrative-driven quests, engage students in exploratory learning within a story context. Simulation Worlds replicate real-world environments, allowing students to practice and hone practical skills in a risk-free setting. Creative Worlds provide open-ended, sandbox-like environments where innovation and imagination are paramount. Role-Playing Worlds facilitate empathy and perspective-taking through character-driven scenarios, while Collaborative Worlds emphasize teamwork and problem-solving in group projects. The narrative review methodology was adopted for the comprehensive analysis and synthesis of the literature to assess the impact and integration of virtual worlds in education, focusing on identifying trends, challenges, and opportunities within this domain. The evaluation methodology used in this study incorporates a mix of the Theory of Inventive Problem Solving (TRIZ), Concept-Knowledge (C-K) theory, Structure-behavior-function (SBF) modeling, the Framework for 21st Century Learning (P21), and Universal Design for Learning (UDL) to evaluate the characteristics and educational potential of different virtual world types. Findings indicate that virtual worlds effectively support critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration skills, presenting a comprehensive analysis of how these environments can support, supplement, or transform traditional educational models. The main outcome of the study is the comprehensive exploration of various types of virtual worlds—Adventure World, Simulation World, Creative World, Role-Playing World, and Collaborative World—in education, demonstrating their significant potential to enhance learning experiences and outcomes through immersive, interactive environments that foster critical thinking, creativity, communication, and collaboration skills.

Making written texts for learning more accessible with easy-to-read and universal design

Reading is regarded as one of the basic learning processes that provides multiple skills and abilities for daily life. The study reported on here arose from evidence of reading comprehension difficulties of middle school students in Colombia, and from reflection on the didactic strategies used for the promotion and teaching of reading. The purpose of this research was to strengthen students’ reading comprehension by taking advantage of the benefits of Easy-to-Read in the context of a methodology applied in Universal Design for Learning. The methodology was centred on the critical social paradigm, and the type of research was mixed with a design based on action research. The instruments used included non-participant observation, online questionnaire, standardised testing and a survey. The pedagogical proposal “Easy Reading” was designed and implemented to show progress in the students’ reading comprehension skills, meeting the objectives set.

Inclusive Virtual Reality Learning: Review and 'Best-Fit' Framework for Universal Learning

The rise of Virtual Reality (VR) in educational contexts has highlighted the need to design Virtual Reality Learning Applications (VRLAs) that prioritize inclusivity, accommodating a spectrum of learner needs. Despite the surging interest, there is a noticeable gap in research that delves into the specifics of creating VRLAs that are rooted in inclusive educational theory. This research sought to extract insights and recommendations for the development of VRLAs tailored for diverse student populations. The intention was to scrutinize research focused on the inclusive design elements of VRLAs, leading to the establishment of preliminary Inclusion Guidelines for VR Learning (IGVRL). Adopting the "best-fit" framework synthesis technique, the research anchored its findings in the Universal Design for Learning (UDL) framework. UDL was developed to mold learning experiences to meet the requirements of heterogenous learners. Using UDL as a coding framework, a comprehensive literature review was undertaken, adhering to the SPIDER search strategy. The review of literature revealed distinct design recommendations that facilitate inclusive learning within VRLAs. Information was systematically categorized based on UDL's nine classifications and subsequently distilled into the preliminary IGVRL. It's pertinent to note that these guidelines, while offering a foundational perspective, necessitate further in-depth evaluations for validation. The analytical process brought to the fore several themes that UDL did not adequately encompass, such as the nuances of embodied learning, the focus on VR contents and their immersive properties, and the pivotal role of collaboration and cooperation in VRLAs. These insights underscore the further need for research in these areas. Although some facets of VR accessibility were discussed, a deeper exploration into this domain was identified as crucial, reiterating the importance of accessibility in underpinning inclusive education. The research underscores the potential of VRLAs in promoting inclusivity within educational settings and introduces the preliminary IGVRL for VRLA design, specifically targeting K-12 contexts. This paper emphasizes the continuum of research required to refine and validate these guidelines, ensuring their applicability and efficacy in diverse educational scenarios.

The Effectiveness of a Training Program Based on the Universal Design for Learning in Improving the Teaching Competencies of Teachers of Students with Learning Difficulties in Al-Ahsa Governorate

هدفت الدراسة الحالية إلى التعرف على فاعلية برنامج تدريبي قائم على مبادئ التصميم الشامل للتعلم في تَحسِينُ الكِفَاياتِ التَّدريسيَّةِ لدَى معلماتِ الطالباتِ ذَوَاتِ صُعُوباتِ التَّعلُّمِ. ولقد تمثلت عينة الدراسة على (30) معلمة صعوبات التعلم في المدارس الحكومية في محافظة الأحساء. وتتبع هذه الدراسة المنهج شبه التجريبي ذو تصميم المجموعة الواحدة، وللإجابة عن أسئلة الدراسة، قام الباحثان ببناء مقياس الكفايات التدريسية لمبادئ التصميم الشامل للتعلم والذي تكون من (40) فقرة. كما تم تصميم البرنامج التدريبي القائم على مبادئ التصميم الشامل للتعلم، حيث طبقت أدوات الدراسة على العينة المشاركة. وأسفرت النتائج باستخدام اختبار (ت) لعينتين مترابطتين وجود فرق ذي دلالة إحصائية عند مستوى دلالة (0.01) بين متوسط درجات معلمات الطالبات ذوات صعوبات التعلم في التطبيقين؛ القبلي بمتوسط (86.50) وبين متوسط درجاتهن في التطبيق البعدي بمتوسط (96.40) لصالح التطبيق البعدي. كما أظهرت النتائج باستخدام اختبار (ت) لعينتين مترابطتين عدم وجود فرق ذي دلالة إحصائية عند مستوى دلالة (0.01) بين متوسط درجات معلمات الطالبات ذوات صعوبات التعلم في التطبيق البعدي وبين متوسط درجاتهن في التطبيق التتبعي بمتوسط (88.47)؛ مما يبين ثبات أثر البرنامج. بناء على النتائج أوصت الباحثة بتضمین مبادئ التصميم الشامل للتعلم من ضمن المناهج التدريسية وبرامج إعداد المعلم داخل كليات التربية بجميع الأقسام سواء للتربية الخاصة أو التعليم العام، وتهيئة البيئة التعليمية التي تدعم تطبيق معلمات الطالبات ذوات صعوبات التعلم لمبادئ التصميم الشامل للتعلم في التدريس، والعمل على توفير التقنيات الحديثة وتحسين جودة وسرعة الإنترنت في المدارس الحكومية.

Using Universal Design for Learning and Artificial Intelligence to Support Students with Disabilities

This paper explores whether Universal Design for Learning (UDL) can be combined with Artificial Intelligence (AI) to create a more inclusive pedagogy for students with disabilities. Two graduate level courses in Student Affairs with a combined enrollment of 37 students completed an AI-based assignment and provided survey data and artifacts of learning to assess student perception and academic impact. The sample reported higher than average rates of disabilities with over 30% reporting a learning disability and 43% reporting qualifying for disability services. The assignment was designed with principles of UDL to specifically consider the unique needs of students with learning disabilities, especially those with difficulty reading or writing, for whom AI may be particularly helpful. Therefore, following UDL standards, students were given multiple options to demonstrate learning by critiquing an AI output by rewriting the output, commenting on the output, or providing a video critique of the output. Interestingly, students were roughly evenly distributed in their selection of the assessment options, suggesting that the options are well-utilized and may be related to the high representation of disability in the classroom sample. Students reported overall satisfaction with an AI-based assignment with UDL options built-in.

Moving towards preservice teachers’ implementation of universal design for learning: the central role of self-efficacy

ABSTRACT As Universal Design for Learning (UDL) has emerged as a reference model to facilitate inclusive education, recent policies have stated the need to strengthen its use in schools and to train preservice teachers in UDL implementation. Growth mindset about learning, self-efficacy towards inclusion, and self-regulation and motivation for teaching are key constructs of UDL implementation for preservice teachers. The present study analyzes the relationship of these three constructs in the implementation of UDL by Spanish preservice teachers and explores the role that internships and specialisation play in such implementation. The results highlighted self-efficacy as the only predictor of UDL implementation and noted that undergraduate specialisation or the number of hours of internships done do not influence the degree of implementation of UDL among preservice teachers. Considering thus the fundamental role of self-efficacy, practical implications on UDL training for students in education degrees are discussed and future lines of research are outlined.

How to motivate students to learn – four motivational styles and how to support each of them

In the dynamically changing educational reality, with the ongoing evolution of teaching methods and the growing role of technology, the role of teachers is no longer limited to merely providing information. Currently, the key element influencing students’ success is their motivation to learn. Another aspect is the common practice of working in a diverse group and the resulting consequences of teaching interactions. They assume the implementation of the principles of Universal Design for Learning (UDL), which recognise the intellectual and cognitive differences of all students, as well as their diverse interests and learning styles, including various ways of motivating students to work. The article raises the issue of motivation while referring to the key principles of UDL. It describes four motivational styles that support differentiated learning, namely: the MASTERY style, emphasising the development of student memory; SELF-EXPRESSIVE style, stimulating students’ imagination and creativity; UNDERSTANDING style, designed to expand students’ ability to reason and explain; and the INTERPERSONAL style, emphasising the importance of relationships in motivating students. The article also provides practical methodological tips for describing various motivational styles. The proposed practical and methodological solutions have been adapted to different age groups of students and refer to various subjects. Thanks to this, recipients have the opportunity to individually adapt them to the specificity of their work.

Accommodations for disabilities in dental education: A focus on technical standards and clinical skills.

Providing disability-based accommodations is a multifaceted process that must balance the needs of dental students and their institutions. Reasonable accommodations must not compromise patient safety or cause an undue burden on the student or institution. Therefore, more creative approaches must be considered as the number of individuals and the types of learning disabilities have increased in recent years. In the clinical setting, providing accommodations also requires detailed advanced planning and collaboration to maintain program quality. However, current technical standards (TS) may serve as a barrier to entry into the health professions for people with disabilities. These individuals remain substantially underrepresented in dentistry despite bringing unique perspectives and experiences that can contribute to a diverse workforce of culturally proficient practitioners. In response, many schools have adopted a "functional" approach to TS that emphasizes a student's abilities rather than their limitations. In addition, innovative assistive technologies coupled with the application of critical pedagogy and universal design learning practices that engage people with the widest possible range of capabilities allows equitable approaches for learning and assessment while maintaining professional standards.