Universal Definition Of Myocardial Infarction Research Articles

Various mechanisms of myocardial necrosis development due to combat injury as a reason for discussion: a case series

The real clinical practice of the last 8 years in Ukraine indicates the possibility of myocardial injury developing in wounded with combat trauma, including those meeting the criteria for myocardial infarction (predominantly type 2), which differs significantly in the mechanism of development, resulting in numerous difficulties for doctors in providing medical care to such patients (formulation of the diagnosis, choice of treatment tactics). The current recommendations of the European Society of Cardiology for the management of patients with acute coronary syndromes after the adoption of the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction do not consider special approaches to the treatment of patients with myocardial necrosis associated with trauma. The aim of this publication was to demonstrate, using the example of a case series, the relevance of the problem of terminology, diagnosis, and treatment of myocardial infarction caused by a combat injury. In all three clinical cases presented, young and middle-aged patients were diagnosed with myocardial infarction in accordance with the Fourth Universal Definition. In all these cases, there were no atherosclerotic coronary artery lesions, and a type 2 myocardial infarction was assumed due to acute myocardial ischemia as a consequence of the injured coronary artery ligation (case 1); microcirculation disorders in the area of myocardial contusion (case 2); anatomical feature of the coronary artery in the form of its intramural course in the presence of severe sympathicotonia and sinus tachycardia (case 3). Because all three patients had myocardial necrosis associated with trauma of the chest and heart, the question arose of the preference for coding such pathology through ICD-10 as section S00-T88 (injury, poisoning and certain other consequences of external causes), namely S26 (injury of heart), but not as I21 (acute myocardial infarction) from the section I00-I99 (diseases of the circulatory system). Thus, the developed pathology in such patients will be clearly associated with the combat trauma, and their treatment will not be tied to the current Ukrainian Unified Protocol for the Management of Patients with ST-segment Elevation Acute Coronary Syndrome. Conclusions. The presented clinical cases substantiate the planning of clinical trials and the development of recommendations for the management of patients with acute myocardial injury (including myocardial necrosis) and trauma of the heart and coronary arteries, depending on the mechanism of damage development.

Serial measurements of protein and microRNA biomarkers to specify myocardial infarction subtypes.

BackgroundWhile cardiac-specific troponin (cTn) allows for rapid diagnosis of acute type 1 myocardial infarction (T1MI), its performance to differentiate acute myocardial injury (AI) or type 2 myocardial infarction (T2MI) is limited. The objective was to combine biomarkers to improve discrimination of different myocardial infarction (MI) aetiologies.MethodsWe determined levels of cardiac troponin T and I (cTnT, cTnI), cardiac myosin-binding protein C (cMyBP-C), NT-proBNP and ten miRNAs, known to be associated with cardiac pathology in a total of n = 495 serial plasma samples at three time points (on admission, after 1 h and 3 h) from 57 NSTEMI (non-ST-elevation myocardial infarction), 18 AI, and 31 STEMI patients, as defined by fourth universal definition of MI (UDMI4) and 59 control individuals. We then applied linear mixed effects model to compare the kinetics of all molecules in these MI sub-types.ResultsEstablished (cTnT, cTnI) and novel (cMyBP-C) cardiac necrosis markers failed in differentiating T1MI vs T2MI at early time points. All cardiac necrosis markers were higher in T1MI than in T2MI at 3 h after admission. Muscle-enriched miRNAs (miR-1 and miR-133a) were correlated with cardiac necrosis protein markers and did not offer better discrimination. Established cardiac strain marker NT-proBNP differentiated AI and T1MI at all time points but failed to discriminate T2MI from T1MI. However, the combination of NT-proBNP and cTnT along with age returned an overall AUC of 0.76 [95 % CI 0.67–0.84] for differentiating T1MI, T2MI and AI.ConclusionsRather than using single biomarkers of myocardial necrosis, a combination of clinical biomarkers for cardiac necrosis (troponin) and cardiac strain (NT-proBNP) might aid in differentiating T1MI, T2MI and AI.

High-Sensitivity Cardiac Troponin Impact on the Differential Diagnosis of Non-ST Segment Elevation Coronary Syndromes-Is It Helping?

Background and Objectives: Increased levels of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) are the main criteria that differentiate non-ST segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) from unstable angina (UA). How are these implemented in clinical practices? This study aims to detect cases of misdiagnosed UA instead of NSTEMI. Materials and Methods: We analysed discharge summaries of 840 patients admitted to Vilnius University Hospital Santaros Klinikos with the diagnosis of UA in 2017–2018. We retrospectively checked symptoms, levels of hs-cTn, coronary angiography and electrocardiogram changes with an aim to differentiate UA and type 1 NSTEMI, according to the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction. We excluded patients with missing hs-cTn levels or coronary angiography. Results: We found that 46.71% (n = 334) of patients met the diagnostic criteria of UA according to the Fourth Universal Definition, whereas 19.16% of patients (n = 137) could have been diagnosed with type 1 NSTEMI instead of UA. In the group of patients who could be reclassified to type 1 NSTEMI, the median level of hs-cTn was 184.32 [226.15] ng/L on admission. The median of the lowest level during the hospitalization was 114.0 [207.4] ng/L. Median highest—304.0 [257.6] ng/L. Myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries could have been diagnosed in 3.36% (n = 24) of patients. Conclusions: Only less than half of patients met the diagnostic UA criteria. Almost one-fifth of patients with a diagnosis of UA could be reclassified to type 1 NSTEMI.

Assessment of Oxygen Supply-Demand Imbalance and Outcomes Among Patients With Type 2 Myocardial Infarction

Type 2 myocardial infarction occurs owing to multiple factors associated with myocardial oxygen supply-demand imbalance, which may confer different risks of adverse outcomes. To evaluate the prevalence and outcomes of different factors associated with oxygen supply-demand imbalance among patients with type 2 myocardial infarction. In this secondary analysis of a stepped-wedge, cluster randomized clinical trial conducted at 10 secondary and tertiary care hospitals in Scotland, 6096 patients with an adjudicated diagnosis of type 1 or type 2 myocardial infarction from June 10, 2013, to March 3, 2016, were identified, and the findings were reported on August 28, 2018. The trial enrolled consecutive patients with suspected acute coronary syndrome. The diagnosis of myocardial infarction was adjudicated according to the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction and the primary factor associated with oxygen supply-demand imbalance in type 2 myocardial infarction was defined. This secondary analysis was not prespecified. Statistical analysis was performed from July 7 to 30, 2020. Implementation of a high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I assay. All-cause death at 1 year according to the factors associated with oxygen supply-demand imbalance among patients with type 2 myocardial infarction. Of 6096 patients (2602 women [43%]; median age, 70 years [IQR, 58-80 years]), 4981 patients had type 1 myocardial infarction, and 1115 patients had type 2 myocardial infarction. The most common factor associated with oxygen supply-demand imbalance was tachyarrhythmia (616 of 1115 [55%]), followed by hypoxemia (219 of 1115 [20%]), anemia (95 of 1115 [9%]), hypotension (89 of 1115 [8%]), severe hypertension (61 of 1115 [5%]), and coronary mechanisms (35 of 1115 [3%]). At 1 year, all-cause mortality occurred for 15% of patients (720 of 4981) with type 1 myocardial infarction and 23% of patients (285 of 1115) with type 2 myocardial infarction. Compared with patients with type 1 myocardial infarction, those with type 2 myocardial infarction owing to hypoxemia (adjusted odds ratio [aOR], 2.35; 95% CI, 1.72-3.18) and anemia (aOR, 1.83; 95% CI, 1.14-2.88) were at greatest risk of death, whereas those with type 2 myocardial infarction owing to tachyarrhythmia (aOR, 0.83; 95% CI, 0.65-1.06) or coronary mechanisms (aOR, 1.07; 95% CI, 0.17-3.86) were at similar risk of death as patients with type 1 myocardial infarction. In this secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial, mortality after type 2 myocardial infarction was associated with the underlying etiologic factor associated with oxygen supply-demand imbalance. Most type 2 myocardial infarctions were associated with tachyarrhythmia, with better prognosis, whereas hypoxemia and anemia accounted for one-third of cases, with double the mortality of type 1 myocardial infarction. These differential outcomes should be considered by clinicians when determining which cases need to be managed if patient outcomes are to improve. ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier: NCT01852123.

Structural Cardiac Abnormalities in Patients with Atrial Fibrillation/Flutter and Myocardial Injury

BackgroundHigh-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTnT) is often increased in patients with atrial fibrillation/flutter, portending a poor prognosis. The etiologies for these increases have not been systematically investigated. Our aim was to define prevalence/significance of structural cardiac abnormalities in patients with atrial fibrillation/flutter and high-sensitivity cardiac troponin T (hs-cTnT) increases. MethodsThis is a retrospective observational cohort study of patients with atrial fibrillation/flutter diagnosis with hs-cTnT measurements, echocardiograms, and coronary angiograms. Myocardial injury was defined as hs-cTnT >10 ng/L for women and >15 ng/L for men. Cases with myocardial injury were adjudicated according to the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction. ResultsPatients with definite causes for increased hs-cTnT (n = 875) were tabulated but not evaluated further; common diagnoses were type 1 myocardial infarction, critical illness, and known heart failure. Of the remaining 401, increased hs-cTnT was present in 336 (84%) patients. Of those, 78% had nonischemic myocardial injury, the remaining (n = 75, 22%) had type 2 myocardial infarction. Patients with elevated hs-cTnT had greater left ventricular mass index, left ventricular filling pressures, and right ventricular systolic pressure. They more frequently had significant coronary artery disease (47% vs 31%, P = .016), especially in type 2 myocardial infarction. With logistic regression, age, sex (F), diabetes, left ventricular mass index, e′ medial velocity, and right ventricular systolic pressure were independent determinants of myocardial injury. One-year mortality was higher in patients with myocardial injury. ConclusionsStructural heart abnormalities are common in patients with atrial fibrillation/flutter and increased hs-cTnT. Causes of myocardial injury should be elucidated in each patient to craft appropriate therapies.

Late Outcomes of Patients With Prehospital ST‐Segment Elevation and Appropriate Cardiac Catheterization Laboratory Nonactivation

BackgroundPatients with suspected ST‐segment–elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and cardiac catheterization laboratory nonactivation (CCL‐NA) or cancellation have reportedly similar crude and higher adjusted risks of death compared with those with CCL activation, though reasons for these poor outcomes are not clear. We determined late clinical outcomes among patients with prehospital ECG STEMI criteria who had CCL‐NA compared with those who had CCL activation.Methods and ResultsWe identified consecutive prehospital ECG transmissions between June 2, 2010 to October 6, 2016. Diagnoses according to the Fourth Universal Definition of myocardial infarction (MI), particularly rates of myocardial injury, were adjudicated. The primary outcome was all‐cause death. Secondary outcomes included cardiovascular death/MI/stroke and noncardiovascular death. To explore competing risks, cause‐specific hazard ratios (HRs) were obtained. Among 1033 included ECG transmissions, there were 569 (55%) CCL activations and 464 (45%) CCL‐NAs (1.8% were inappropriate CCL‐NAs). In the CCL activation group, adjudicated index diagnoses included MI (n=534, 94%, of which 99.6% were STEMI and 0.4% non‐STEMI), acute myocardial injury (n=15, 2.6%), and chronic myocardial injury (n=6, 1.1%). In the CCL‐NA group, diagnoses included MI (n=173, 37%, of which 61% were non‐STEMI and 39% STEMI), chronic myocardial injury (n=107, 23%), and acute myocardial injury (n=47, 10%). At 2 years, the risk of all‐cause death was higher in patients who had CCL‐NA compared with CCL activation (23% versus 7.9%, adjusted risk ratio, 1.58, 95% CI, 1.24–2.00), primarily because of an excess in noncardiovascular deaths (adjusted HR, 3.56, 95% CI, 2.07–6.13). There was no significant difference in the adjusted risk for cardiovascular death/MI/stroke between the 2 groups (HR, 1.23, 95% CI, 0.87–1.73).ConclusionsCCL‐NA was not primarily attributable to missed STEMI, but attributable to “masquerading” with high rates of non‐STEMI and myocardial injury. These patients had worse late outcomes than patients who had CCL activation, mainly because of higher rates of noncardiovascular deaths.

Major adverse cardiovascular events after diagnosis of myocardial injury and types 1 and 2 myocardial infarction.

Limited US outcome data exist among patients with myocardial injury and types 1 and 2 myocardial infarction (MI) evaluated with high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn). This is an observational US cohort study of emergency department (ED) patients undergoing hs-cTnT measurement. Cases with ≥1 hs-cTnT increase >99th percentile were adjudicated following the Fourth Universal Definition of MI. Post-discharge major adverse cardiovascular events (MACE) included death, MI, heart failure (HF) hospitalization, stroke or transient ischaemic attack, and new-onset atrial fibrillation or flutter during 2 years follow-up. Among 2002 patients, 857 (43%) had ≥1 hs-cTnT >99th percentile. Among these, 702 (81.9%) had myocardial injury, 64 (7.5%) had type 1 MI, and 91 (10.6%) had type 2 MI. Compared with patients without myocardial injury, type 2 MI [8.4 vs. 50%; adjusted hazard ratio (HR) 2.31, 95% confidence interval (CI) 1.49-3.58] and myocardial injury (8.4 vs. 47%; adjusted HR 3.13, 95% CI 2.39-4.09) had a higher risk of MACE, in large part because of death and HF hospitalizations. Compared with patients with type 1 MI, type 2 MI (23 vs. 50%; adjusted HR 2.24; 95% CI 1.23-4.10) and myocardial injury (23 vs. 47%; adjusted HR 2.02; 95% CI 1.20-3.40) also have a higher risk of MACE. Among unselected US ED patients undergoing hs-cTnT measurement, most increases are due to myocardial injury, and type 2 MI is more frequent than type 1 MI. Patients with myocardial injury and type 2 MI have morbid outcomes, in large part due to death and HF.

Analytical Considerations in Deriving 99th Percentile Upper Reference Limits for High-Sensitivity Cardiac Troponin Assays: Educational Recommendations from the IFCC Committee on Clinical Application of Cardiac Bio-Markers.

The International Federation of Clinical Chemistry Committee on Clinical Application of Cardiac Bio-Markers provides evidence-based educational documents to facilitate uniform interpretation and utilization of cardiac biomarkers in clinical laboratories and practice. The committee's goals are to improve the understanding of certain key analytical and clinical aspects of cardiac biomarkers and how these may interplay in clinical practice. Measurement of high-sensitivity cardiac troponin (hs-cTn) assays is a cornerstone in the clinical evaluation of patients with symptoms and/or signs of acute cardiac ischemia. To define myocardial infarction, the Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction requires patients who manifest with features suggestive of acute myocardial ischemia to have at least one cTn concentration above the sex-specific 99th percentile upper reference limit (URL) for hs-cTn assays and a dynamic pattern of cTn concentrations to fulfill the diagnostic criteria for MI. This special report provides an overview of how hs-cTn 99th percentile URLs should be established, including recommendations about prescreening and the number of individuals required in the reference cohort, how statistical analysis should be conducted, optimal preanalytical and analytical protocols, and analytical/biological interferences or confounds that can affect accurate determination of the 99th percentile URLs. This document also provides guidance and solutions to many of the issues posed.

P212 PROGNOSTIC ROLE OF ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION DIAGNOSTIC CRITERIA IN NON–ST SEGMENT ELEVATION MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION

Abstract Background Although the majority of patients with NSTEMI share similar risk factors and similar pathophysiology, their outcomes differ considerably. The Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction (UDMI) defined acute myocardial infarction (AMI) by an acute myocardial injury together with clinical evidence of acute myocardial ischaemia. However, the prognostic role of each single diagnostic criteria has never been explored. Purpose To evaluate the prognostic role of the different diagnostic criteria of AMI according to the Fourth UDMI in NSTEMI patients. Methods We enrolled all consecutive patients with AMI undergoing coronary angiogram at our Centre. We used a combination of criteria, according to the current ESC guidelines, to meet the diagnosis, namely the detection of an increase and/or decrease of high–sensitivity cardiac troponin I, with at least one value above the 99th percentile of the upper reference limit and at least one of the following: symptoms of ischaemia; ECG changes (new ST–T changes or new LBBB); development of pathological Q waves in the ECG; echocardiographic evidence of new loss of viable myocardium or new regional wall motion abnormality. Patients with STEMI and very high risk NSTEMI were excluded. A composite endpoint of all–cause mortality, re–hospitalization for heart failure, and myocardial reinfarction was collected. The predictive value of diagnostic criteria alone and their association were evaluated using Kaplan–Meier survival curves and subsequent Cox–regression analysis to find independent predictors of adverse events. Results 2791 patients with NSTEMI were evaluate. At admission 196 had clinical criteria alone, 187 had clinic + ECG and 829 had clinic + ECG + echo. The total number of events was 689. The median follow–up was 23.3±14.5 months. We found that patients with clinical criteria alone had a better prognosis at 2 years follow–up (p < 0.001). No other significant prognostic correlation was found. Multivariable Cox–regression model demonstrated that clinical criteria was the only independent predictor of better prognosis in patients with NSTEMI (HR = 0.48; CI 95% 0.31–0.74; p < 0.001). Conclusions Our data suggest that in NSTEMI the prognosis is considerably better if clinical criteria alone is present at admission. We hypothesize that the absence of electrocardiographic and echocardiographic alterations in NSTEMI could indirectly indicate smaller infarct sizes or other causes of acute myocardial injury.

Myocardial bridging is significantly associated to myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries.

Myocardial infarction with non-obstructive coronary arteries (MINOCA) is a common disorder characterized by the presence of clinical criteria for acute myocardial infarction in the absence of obstructive coronary artery disease on angiography. We aim to investigate the relationship between myocardial bridging (MB) and MINOCA. An observational retrospective study was conducted on 15 036 patients who had been referred for coronary angiography and who fulfilled the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction. The study population was divided into ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and non-ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (NSTEMI) patients, from which we defined two main groups: the MINOCA group and the coronary artery disease (CAD) group. Statistical analyses were carried out by using SPSS, version 20. The prevalence of angiographic MB among the groups was significantly greater in the MINOCA group (2.9% vs. 0.8%). MINOCA accounted for 14.5% of spontaneous myocardial infarction, and the clinical presentation was more frequently NSTEMI rather than STEMI (84.3% vs. 15.7%). After adjusting for confounders, multivariate analyses showed a positive association between MB and MINOCA [odds ratio = 3.28, 95% CI (2.34; 4.61) P < 0.001]. Cardiovascular risk factors were less common in the MINOCA population, which was younger and more often female. MB is a risk factor for MINOCA. Because MB prevalence differed significantly between the controls (CAD group) and cases (MINOCA group), which were positively associated to MB, it seems likely that MB would be a potential cause of MINOCA. Investigations for MB in MINOCA cases and especially in NSTEMI patients seem necessary.

31 ADMISSION OF SYSTOLIC BLOOD PRESSURE AND ANTECEDENT HYPERTENSION WORSENING THE SHORT-TERM OUTCOMES AFTER ST-SEGMENT ELEVATION MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION

Background and Aim: The prevalence of antecedent hypertension varies from 46.0% to 63.4%. Until recently, many studies evaluated the prognostic significance of a previous history of hypertension in patients presented with ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI) and came to inconsistent result. We evaluated the combined effect of admission systolic blood pressure (SBP) and antecedent hypertension on short-term outcomes in patients with STEMI. Materials and Methods: Data were derived from Malang ACS registry of 534 consecutive patients with STEMI. STEMI within 12 hours after the onset of symptoms 2018 and 2020. The diagnosis of STEMI was followed the universal definition of myocardial infarction. Patients were divided into 4 groups according to different blood pressure status: high SBP without hypertension, high SBP with hypertension, low SBP without hypertension, and low SBP with hypertension. The primary endpoints were 30-day all-cause mortality. Results: The prevalence of hypertension was 38.6%, and the best cutoff of admission SBP for predicting 30-day mortality was 94 mmHg by receiver-operating characteristic curve. Patients with hypertension were older, more often male, also had longer onset-to-admission time, more comorbidities, and higher Killip class. Patients with both low SBP (±94 mmHg) and hypertension group had significantly higher 30-day mortality than those in other groups (all P &lt; 0.000). After multivariate adjustment, low SBP with hypertension group was still an independent risk factor for predicting 30-day mortality (hazard ratios [HR] 1.66, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.21—2.16; P &lt; 0.001). In patients with SBP &gt; 94 mmHg, a history of hypertension could increase the risk of 30-day mortality by 17% (HR 1.06 vs 1.37, P = 0.004), while in patients with SBP ± 94 mmHg, this increased risk reached to 44% (HR 1.21 vs 2.38, P &lt; 0.001). Conclusion: Low admission SBP was the relatively dominant contributor for predicting 30-day all-cause mortality, and a concurrent antecedent hypertension increased the corresponding risk of mortality

Diagnostic performance of a rapid, novel, whole blood, point of care high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I assay for myocardial infarction

BackgroundWe evaluated the diagnostic performance of a whole blood, point of care (POC) high-sensitivity cardiac troponin I (hs-cTnI) assay for myocardial infarction (MI) compared to central laboratory assays. MethodsConsecutive patients presenting to the emergency department with symptoms of ischemia were studied. Serial hs-cTnI testing was based on clinical indication at presentation. Parallel measurements were made using fresh whole blood on Siemens Atellica VTLi POC assay, EDTA plasma on Abbott ARCHITECT i2000 used in practice, and heparin plasma on Siemens Atellica. MI was determined according to the Fourth Universal Definition of MI using 99th percentiles. Sensitivities and negative predictive values (NPV) were calculated using 99th percentile URLs. Results1089 Patients, 418 females and 671 males, were enrolled. There were 91 (8.4%) MIs. At baseline (0 h), POC hs-cTnI assay had a sensitivity of 65.7% (95% CI 47.8–80.9) for females and 67.9% (54.0–79.7) for males and NPV of 96.4% (93.9–98.1) for females and 96.7% (94.9–98.0) for males. At 2 h, sensitivity improved to 82.9% (66.4–93.4) for females and 80.4% (67.6–89.8) for males, while NPV improved to 98.2% (96.1–99.3) and 97.9% (96.3–99.0), respectively. For central laboratory assays, comparable diagnostics were observed at 2 h: females - sensitivity 94.3% (80.8–99.3) for ARCHITECT and 79.4% (62.1–91.3) for Atellica, and NPV 99.3% (97.6–99.9) and 98.0% (95.8–99.2), respectively; males - sensitivity 87.5% (75.9–94.8) for ARCHITECT and 80.4% (67.6–89.8) for Atellica, NPVs of 98.7% (97.3–99.5) and 97.9% (96.3–99.0), respectively. ConclusionsThe POC, whole blood Atellica VTLi hs-cTnI assay demonstrated comparable diagnostic accuracy for MI to central laboratory assays using 99th percentiles.

New horizons in Type 2 myocardial infarction: pathogenesis, assessment and management of an emerging geriatric disease.

Type 2 myocardial infarction (MI) is characterised by a functional imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand in the absence of a thrombotic process, leading to myocardial necrosis. This type of MI was relatively unknown among clinicians until the third universal definition of MI was published in 2017, differentiating Type 2 from Type 1 MI, which follows an acute atherothrombotic event. The pathogenesis, diagnostic and therapeutic aspects of Type 2 MI are described in the present review. Type 2 MI is a condition that is strongly linked to age because of vascular ageing concerning both epicardic vessels and microcirculation, age-related atherosclerosis and stress maladaptation. This condition predominantly affects multimorbid individuals with a history of cardiovascular disease. However, the conditions that lead to the functional imbalance between oxygen supply and demand are frequently extra-cardiac (e.g. pneumonia or anaemia). The great heterogeneity of the underlying etiological factors requires a comprehensive approach that is tailored to each case. In the absence of evidence for the benefit of invasive reperfusion strategies, the treatment of Type 2 MI remains to date essentially based on the restoration of the balance between oxygen supply and demand. For older co-morbid patients with Type 2 MI, geriatricians and cardiologists need to work together to optimise etiological investigations, treatment and prevention of predisposing conditions and precipitating factors.

Troponins in myocardial infarction and injury.

SUMMARYTroponins are proteins that are integral components of the contractile mechanism of muscle, including cardiac muscle. Cardiac troponins Iand T can be detected in the blood of most people after puberty, at concentrations reflecting cardiac mass, sex and age.Current laboratory assays are approximately 1000 times more sensitive than those used previously. They also have higher sensitivity than point-of-care assays.The measurement of cardiac troponins is used primarily to assist in the diagnosis or exclusion of myocardial injury. Serial tests in acute coronary syndrome are guided by the Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction.

Cardiovascular Biomarkers

The value of circulating biomarkers to care for patients with cardiovascular disease has grown significantly over the last few decades. The majority of clinical data focus on the use of natriuretic peptides (NPs) for the diagnosis, prognosis, and management of patients with heart failure (HF) and troponin measurements in patients with suspected or proven acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Part of the reason for the slow adoption of biomarkers beyond these two classes has been limitation in the optimal modes of application of new assays. Future studies are needed to clarify the use of biomarkers, with the ultimate goal of simplifying the diagnosis, prognosis, and patient care of complex cardiovascular conditions. This chapter reviews the use of established biomarkers for HF, ACS, and atrial fibrillation (AF). Tables include a summary of emerging and established cardiovascular biomarkers, characteristics of B-type natriuretic peptide and amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, cutoff points for NP measurement, differential diagnosis of elevated NP concentrations, biomarkers in HF with preserved ejection fraction, summary of NP management trials, third universal definition of myocardial infarction, and guidelines for recommendations of biomarkers in HF. Figures depict the various causes of NP release, the complex mechanism of troponin release in patients with HF, the ischemic and nonischemic etiologies of troponin release, timing of biomarker release during myocardial infarction, and the biomarkers involved in the pathogenesis of AF. Algorithms demonstrate evaluating outpatients with dyspnea in the clinic using NPs in their workup and the use of troponin to assist with determining an appropriate management strategy for a patient with ACS. This review contains 7 highly rendered figures, 8 tables, and 202 references.

Cardiovascular Biomarkers

The value of circulating biomarkers to care for patients with cardiovascular disease has grown significantly over the last few decades. The majority of clinical data focus on the use of natriuretic peptides (NPs) for the diagnosis, prognosis, and management of patients with heart failure (HF) and troponin measurements in patients with suspected or proven acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Part of the reason for the slow adoption of biomarkers beyond these two classes has been limitation in the optimal modes of application of new assays. Future studies are needed to clarify the use of biomarkers, with the ultimate goal of simplifying the diagnosis, prognosis, and patient care of complex cardiovascular conditions. This chapter reviews the use of established biomarkers for HF, ACS, and atrial fibrillation (AF). Tables include a summary of emerging and established cardiovascular biomarkers, characteristics of B-type natriuretic peptide and amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, cutoff points for NP measurement, differential diagnosis of elevated NP concentrations, biomarkers in HF with preserved ejection fraction, summary of NP management trials, third universal definition of myocardial infarction, and guidelines for recommendations of biomarkers in HF. Figures depict the various causes of NP release, the complex mechanism of troponin release in patients with HF, the ischemic and nonischemic etiologies of troponin release, timing of biomarker release during myocardial infarction, and the biomarkers involved in the pathogenesis of AF. Algorithms demonstrate evaluating outpatients with dyspnea in the clinic using NPs in their workup and the use of troponin to assist with determining an appropriate management strategy for a patient with ACS. This review contains 7 highly rendered figures, 8 tables, and 202 references.

Cardiovascular Biomarkers

The value of circulating biomarkers to care for patients with cardiovascular disease has grown significantly over the last few decades. The majority of clinical data focus on the use of natriuretic peptides (NPs) for the diagnosis, prognosis, and management of patients with heart failure (HF) and troponin measurements in patients with suspected or proven acute coronary syndrome (ACS). Part of the reason for the slow adoption of biomarkers beyond these two classes has been limitation in the optimal modes of application of new assays. Future studies are needed to clarify the use of biomarkers, with the ultimate goal of simplifying the diagnosis, prognosis, and patient care of complex cardiovascular conditions. This chapter reviews the use of established biomarkers for HF, ACS, and atrial fibrillation (AF). Tables include a summary of emerging and established cardiovascular biomarkers, characteristics of B-type natriuretic peptide and amino-terminal pro-B-type natriuretic peptide, cutoff points for NP measurement, differential diagnosis of elevated NP concentrations, biomarkers in HF with preserved ejection fraction, summary of NP management trials, third universal definition of myocardial infarction, and guidelines for recommendations of biomarkers in HF. Figures depict the various causes of NP release, the complex mechanism of troponin release in patients with HF, the ischemic and nonischemic etiologies of troponin release, timing of biomarker release during myocardial infarction, and the biomarkers involved in the pathogenesis of AF. Algorithms demonstrate evaluating outpatients with dyspnea in the clinic using NPs in their workup and the use of troponin to assist with determining an appropriate management strategy for a patient with ACS. This review contains 7 highly rendered figures, 8 tables, and 202 references.

Correlation between Traditional Chinese Medicine Syndromes and Type 2 Myocardial Infarction in Critically Ill Patients with Pulmonary Disease.

Background Treatment based on syndrome differentiation under the traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) framework has been shown to be helpful in patients with coronary artery disease. We hypothesized that syndrome types could predict the risk of type 2 myocardial infarction (T2MI) caused by imbalance between myocardial oxygen supply and demand in critically ill patients with pulmonary disease. Methods This retrospective study included consecutive critically ill patients with pulmonary disease admitted to the ICU at Jiading District Central Hospital Affiliated Shanghai University of Medicine & Health Sciences from January 1, 2017, to July 1, 2019. Diagnosis of T2MI was based on the fourth universal definition of myocardial infarction. Risk factors associated with T2MI were identified using multivariate regression analysis. Results A total of 244 patients were included in the study: 78 who developed T2MI and the remaining 166 who did not develop T2MI during hospitalization. The incidence of phlegm syndrome and deficiency syndrome was 61.9% and 38.1%, respectively. In comparison with the patients with phlegm syndrome, the incidence of T2MI in patients with deficiency syndrome is significantly higher (40.9% vs. 26.5%, P=0.019). In multivariate logistic regression, T2MI was independently associated with the baseline troponin level (OR 12.682, 95% CI 1.397∼115.121; P=0.024), hemoglobin < 55 g/L (OR 12.76, 95% CI 2.359∼69.021; P=0.003), mechanical ventilation (OR 2.244, 95% CI 1.029∼4.892; P=0.042), and TCM deficiency syndrome (OR 2.214, 95% CI 1.032∼4.749; P=0.041). After adjusting for confounding factors in Cox regression models, the hazard ratio (95% confidence interval) of qi deficiency syndrome groups was 1.183 (95% CI 1.053∼3.123, P=0.032). Conclusions Patients with deficiency syndrome are at high risk of T2MI, especially those combined with qi deficiency syndrome.

Prediction of type 4a myocardial infarction with the angiography-derived hemodynamic (ADDED) index.

Percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) is frequently complicated by type 4a myocardial infarction (MI), which is associated with an increased risk of mortality. We assessed the usefulness of the angiography-derived hemodynamic index (ADDED), which is based on the extent of myocardium at risk and on the anatomical lesion severity, in predicting type 4a MI in patients with chronic coronary syndrome (CCS) undergoing PCI. We enrolled 442 patients treated with single-vessel PCI. The ADDED index was calculated as the ratio of the Duke Jeopardy Score to the minimum lumen diameter assessed with quantitative angiography analysis. Type 4a MI was defined according to the 4th Universal Definition of MI. The overall population was divided into tertiles of ADDED index. Type 4a MI occurred in 5 patients (3.3%) in the ADDED-low tertile, 8 (5.5%) in the ADDED-mid tertile, and 26 (17.7%) in the ADDED-high tertile (p < 0.0001). At ROC curve analysis, the ADDED index could significantly discriminate between patients with and without type 4a MI (area under the curve 0.745). At multivariate analysis, an ADDED index value > 5.25 was the strongest independent predictor type 4a MI. Our results support the role of the ADDED index as a predictor of type 4a MI in patients with CCS treated with elective PCI of a single vessel. Whether a selective use of additional preventive measures in patients considered at high risk based on ADDED index values may improve peri-procedural and long-term outcomes remains to be tested in dedicated investigations.

Effect of intraoperative personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management on acute myocardial injury in high-risk patients having major abdominal surgery: a post-hoc secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial

Acute myocardial injury is common after noncardiac surgery and associated with mortality. Impaired intraoperative cardiovascular dynamics are a risk factor for acute myocardial injury. Optimizing intraoperative cardiovascular dynamics may thus reduce acute myocardial injury. We aimed to investigate the effect of intraoperative personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management on the incidence of acute myocardial injury. We hypothesized that personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management reduces the incidence of acute myocardial injury compared to routine hemodynamic management in high-risk patients having major abdominal surgery. We performed a post-hoc secondary analysis of a randomized clinical trial including 180 high-risk major abdominal surgery patients that were randomized to personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management or routine hemodynamic management. We compared the incidences of acute myocardial injury—defined according to the Fourth Universal Definition of Myocardial Infarction (2018)—between patients randomized to personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management or routine hemodynamic management by calculating the relative and absolute risk reduction together with 95% Wald confidence intervals and P values. Acute myocardial injury occurred in 4 of 90 patients (4%) in the personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management group and in 12 of 90 patients (13%) in the routine hemodynamic management group (relative risk: 0.33, 95% confidence interval: 0.11 to 0.99, P = 0.036; absolute risk reduction: − 9%, 95% confidence interval: − 17% to − 0.68%, P = 0.034). In this post-hoc secondary analysis, intraoperative personalized goal-directed hemodynamic management reduced the incidence of acute myocardial injury compared to routine hemodynamic management in high-risk patients having major abdominal surgery. This needs to be confirmed in larger prospective trials.