Universal Childhood Research Articles

Universal free school meals and children’s bodyweight. Impacts by age and duration of exposure

We study the impact on children’s bodyweight of switching from means-tested to universal provision of nutritious free school meals in England. We exploit the roll-out of universal provision across Local Authorities to estimate effects at different ages and durations of exposure, based on nurse-collected, population-wide health data for state school children. Exposure to universal free lunches reduces obesity prevalence and BMI among children aged 4–5 and 10–11, but older children’s bodyweights are less responsive than younger children’s. We find tentative evidence that effects may be cumulative, as impacts are largest for those exposed to universal free school meals throughout primary school.

Agenda 2030 for sustainable development in Portuguese Speaking Countries, indicators inequalities

Abstract Background Achieving the SDG Sustainable Development goals represents a major global challenge. The Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP) is made up of countries: Angola, Cape Verde, Guinea-Bissau, Equatorial Guinea, Mozambique, São Tomé and Príncipe, Brazil, Portugal, and East Timor. Studies on SDG indicators are little studied among these countries. The study analyzes SDG health indicators in the Community of Portuguese Speaking Countries (CPLP) and their projections for 2030, and investigates the correlation between the countries’ level of development and the performance of these indicators. Methods Ecological epidemiological study. Estimates from the Global Burden of Disease (GBD) study between 1990 and 2021 were analyzed, referring to fifteen indicators: universal health coverage, sanitation, smoking, maternal and child health, vaccination coverage and communicable diseases. The GBD study generated projections by calculating the annual change since 1990 for each country and year and then calculating the weighted annualized rate of change. The correlation between the Sociodemographic Index (SDI) and the SDG indicators was investigated using the Spearman test, at a significance level of 5%. Results The best performances of the analyzed indicators were seen for Portugal, followed by Brazil, Cape Verde and São Tomé and Príncipe. In other countries, high rates of infectious diseases, maternal and childhood mortality, malnutrition, low vaccination coverage and sanitation were observed. There was a negative correlation between the SDI and the indicators of childhood mortality rate (R=-0.82; p < 0.05), malnutrition (R=-0.7; p < 0.05), incidence of tuberculosis (R =-0.73; p < 0.05) and positive between SDI and sewage coverage (R=-0.83; p < 0.05). Conclusions The CPLP presents internal differences regarding the health indicators analyzed, making it essential to advance cooperation between countries to achieve the SDG targets in 2030. Key messages • There are great inequalities between SDG indicators in Portuguese-speaking countries. • It is important to advance technical cooperation between countries to formulate solutions and leave no one behind.

How policies created without early childhood educator input create toxic working environments that objectify educators

Through the lens of objectification and toxic workplace theory, this article critically examines Ontario, Canada's policies and regulations on early childhood education and care (ECEC). In the context of Canada's transition to universal child care and the persistent workforce crisis in the ECEC sector, this article highlights how registered early childhood educators (RECE) workplace challenges, including poor working conditions, low wages, and a lack of professional recognition, are theorized within objectification and toxic workplace theory. Specifically, the Child Care and Early Years Act (CCEYA) and the Ontario Early Year Framework, which establish the standards and regulations for licensed childcare providers, are analyzed to determine how they objectify RECEs and create toxic workplaces. Grounded in advocacy to improve working conditions in ECEC, this article provides a unique framework for understanding and interrupting how RECEs are not considered in creating government regulations, how individual centers and organizations can interpret the current rules to continue to devalue the contributions of RECEs to the sector, and how and why this continuation of devaluation is affecting the well-being and working conditions of RECEs.

Implementing K-Nearest Neighbors (k-NN) Algorithm and Backward Elimination on Cardiotocography Datasets

Having a healthy baby is a dream for mothers. Unfortunately, high maternal and fetal mortality has become a vital problem that requires early risk detection for pregnant women. A cardiotocograph examination is necessary to maintain maternal and fetal health. One method that can solve this problem is classification. This research analyzes the optimal use of k values and distance measurements in the k-NN method. This research expects to become the primary reference for other studies examining the same dataset or developing k-NN. A selection feature is needed to optimize the classification method, particularly for improving accuracy results. This study used the cardiotocography dataset from cardiotocograph examinations related to fetal conditions. The cardiotocography dataset consisted of 2,126 records with 22 features and variables. It also had three classification classes, normal, suspect, and pathological, from the Universal Child Immunization Machine Learning Repository website. It employed the K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) method and the backward elimination feature with ordinary least squares regression. The test in this research applied the scenarios of three distance calculations, i.e., Euclidean distance, Manhattan distance, and Minkowski distance, as well as four variations of k values. Evaluation of each scenario indicated the accuracy of the confusion matrix and execution time. This study compared K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) and Backward Elimination methods with K-nearest neighbor (k-NN) without selection features. The best accuracy of the Backward Elimination and K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN) methods was 91%, as was the K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) method without selection features. Both had similar k values (k = 3) and Manhattan distance. The backward elimination method reduced the number of features from 22 to 14. Meanwhile, the execution times of the Backward Elimination and K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) methods got better results as each distance averaged 26.54, 19.23, and 68.09 seconds. K-Nearest Neighbor (k-NN) execution times without selection features were 26.83, 19.39, and 68.84, respectively. In conclusion, backward elimination did not increase accuracy because it yielded the same accuracy. However, backward elimination and K-nearest Neighbor (k-NN) produced faster results, with differences of 29%, 16%, and 75%, respectively.

Perceived Acceptability of Technology Modalities for the Provision of Universal Child and Family Health Nursing Support in the First 6-8 Months After Birth: Cross-Sectional Study.

Child and Family Health Nursing (CFHN) services provide universal care to families during the first 2000 days (conception: 5 years) to support optimal health and developmental outcomes of children in New South Wales, Australia. The use of technology represents a promising means to encourage family engagement with CFHN services and enable universal access to evidenced-based age and stage information. Currently, there is little evidence exploring the acceptability of various models of technology-based support provided during the first 2000 days, as well as the maternal characteristics that may influence this. This study aims to describe (1) the acceptability of technology-based models of CFHN support to families in the first 6 months, and (2) the association between the acceptability of technology-based support and maternal characteristics. A cross-sectional survey was undertaken between September and November 2021 with women who were 6-8 months post partum within the Hunter New England Local Health District of New South Wales, Australia. Survey questions collected information on maternal demographics and pregnancy characteristics, perceived stress, access to CFHN services, as well as preferences and acceptability of technology-based support. Descriptive statistics were used to describe the characteristics of the sample, the proportion of women accessing CFHN services, maternal acceptability of technology-based support from CFHN services, and the appropriateness of timing of support. Multivariable logistic regression models were conducted to assess the association between maternal characteristics and the acceptability of technology-based CFHN support. A total of 365 women participated in the study, most were 25 to 34 years old (n=242, 68%), had completed tertiary level education or higher (n=250, 71%), and were employed or on maternity leave (n=280, 78%). Almost all (n=305, 89%) women reported accessing CFHN services in the first 6 months following their child's birth. The majority of women (n=282-315, 82%-92%) "strongly agreed or agreed" that receiving information from CFHN via technology would be acceptable, and most (n=308) women "strongly agreed or agreed" with being provided information on a variety of relevant health topics. Acceptability of receiving information via websites was significantly associated with maternal employment status (P=.01). The acceptability of receiving support via telephone and email was significantly associated with maternal education level (adjusted odds ratio 2.64, 95% CI 1.07-6.51; P=.03 and adjusted odds ratio 2.90, 95% CI 1.20-7.00; P=.02, respectively). Maternal age was also associated with the acceptability of email support (P=.04). Technology-based CFHN support is generally acceptable to mothers. Maternal characteristics, including employment status, education level, and age, were found to modify the acceptability of specific technology modalities. The findings of this research should be considered when designing technology-based solutions to providing universal age and stage child health and developmental support for families during the first 2000 days.

Experiences of central child health services teams regarding a special governmental investment in child health services

BackgroundHistorically marked by a high infant mortality rate, Sweden’s healthcare reforms have successively led to a robust, decentralized universal child health system covering over 97% of the population 0–5 years. However, inequities in health have become an increasing problem and the public health law explicitly states that health inequities should be reduced, resulting in various government initiatives. This study examines the experiences of Central Child Health Services (CCHS) teams during the implementation of the Child Health Services Accessibility Agreement between the State and the regions starting in 2017. The agreement aimed to enhance child health service accessibility, especially in socio-economically disadvantaged areas, but broadly stated guidelines and the short-term nature of funding have raised questions about its effectiveness. The aim of this study was to understand the experiences of CCHC teams in implementing the Child Health Services Accessibility Agreement, focusing on investment decisions, implementation efforts, as well as facilitators and barriers to using the funds effectively.MethodsCCHC teams were purposefully sampled and invited via email for interviews, with follow-ups for non-respondents. Conducted from January to October 2023, the interviews were held digitally and recorded with individuals familiar with the agreement’s implementation within these teams. Both authors analyzed the transcripts thematically, applying Braun and Clarke’s framework. Participants represented a cross-section of Sweden’s varied healthcare regions.ResultsThree main themes emerged from the thematic analysis: “Easy come, easy go,” highlighting funding uncertainties; “What are we supposed to do?” expressing dilemmas over project prioritization and partner collaboration; and “Building castles on sand,” focusing on the challenges of staff retention and foundational program stability. Respective subthemes addressed issues like fund allocation timing, strategic decision-making, and the practical difficulties of implementing extended home visiting programs, particularly in collaboration with social services.ConclusionsThis study uncovered the challenges faced in implementing the Child Health Services Accessibility Agreement across different regions in Sweden. These obstacles underline the need for precise guidelines regarding the use of funds, stable financing for long-term project sustainability, and strong foundational support to ensure effective interprofessional collaboration and infrastructure development for equitable service delivery in child health services.

Early childcare arrangements and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms: an individual participant data meta-analysis of six prospective birth cohorts in Europe

Early childcare attendance may be related to children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms throughout childhood and young adolescence, however evidence from Europe is limited. We aimed to assess this association across multiple population-based birth cohorts of children recruited in different European countries. Data come from six parent-offspring prospective birth cohort studies across five European countries within the EU Child Cohort Network. A total of 87,208 parent-child dyads were included in the study. To test associations between childcare attendance (centre-based or informal) anytime between ages 0 and 4 years and children's internalizing and externalizing symptoms in middle childhood and young adolescence (measured at: 5-6 years, 7-9 years, and 10-13 years) a two-stage individual participant data meta-analysis was implemented. Linear regression models were performed in each cohort separately; combined random-effects meta-analysis was then used to obtain overall association estimates. In secondary analyses, we tested interactions between childcare attendance and mother's post-partum depression, low education status, and the child's sex. Compared to children who were exclusively cared for by their parents prior to school entry, those who attended centre-based childcare had lower levels of internalizing symptoms in all age groups [5-6 years: β:-1.78 (95% CI:-3.39,-0.16); 7-9 years: β:-0.55 (95% CI:-0.88,-0.73); 10-13 years: β:-0.76 (95% CI:-1.15,-0.37)]. Children who attended informal childcare appeared to have elevated levels of internalizing symptoms between 7-9 and 10-13 years, respectively [β: 1.65 (95% CI: 1.25, 2.06); β: 1.25 (95% CI: 0.96, 1.54)]. Informal childcare attendance was also associated with increased levels of children's externalizing symptoms between 7-9 and 10-13 years, respectively [β: 2.84 (95% CI: 1.41, 4.26); β: 2.19 (95% CI: 0.54, 3.84)]. Early centre-based childcare is associated with decreased levels of children's internalizing symptoms compared to exclusive parental care. For informal childcare, opposite associations were observed. Overall, our results suggest that centre-based childcare attendance may be associated with slight positive impacts on children's emotional development and should be encouraged by public policies. In addition, children from socioeconomically disadvantaged families require special attention, as they may not sufficiently benefit from universal early childhood education and care (ECEC). This research was funded by the ERC Consolidator grant RESEDA (Horizon Europe, 101001420).

Welfare and economic implications of universal child benefits

Universal child benefits are an important component of the social protection systems in many developed economies, particularly in Europe. When evaluating their impact, most studies tend to focus primarily on the empirical evidence and short-term effects. However, given their large-scale implementation, such programs can have sizable general equilibrium effects. The aim of this paper is to study the long-run implications of universal child benefits within a theoretical framework that can capture the complexities of household decisions regarding consumption, labor participation, and the timing of children. To this end, I develop an overlapping generations model with idiosyncratic earnings risk, infertility shocks, and endogenous temporal fertility. According to the model simulations, universal child benefits lead to a reduction in the spacing between children and, on average, lower maternal age at childbirth for all births. This, in turn, alleviates some of the negative aggregate effects typically associated with redistributive policies, but has a detrimental impact on the average quality of children. Finally, universal child benefits increase ex-ante welfare by 0.42% of lifetime adult consumption, significantly outperforming broad-based transfer policies not tied to the number of children.

Imagining Other Childhoods: Dolls and the Museum of Childhood as an Imperial Space

This article considers how museums of childhood in Britain were imagined as racialized spaces, designed to simultaneously project both a notion of universal childhood and of racial hierarchies. The legacies of this work matter for efforts today to decolonize museums. The case study is the ethnographic doll collections of Edward Lovett (1852–1933), an amateur folklorist best known for his collection of home-made dolls. The ways in which these dolls were collected, described, cataloged, and displayed reveals the racialized assumptions of British imperialism in the early 20th century, including the infantilization of other cultures and the widely held belief in evolutionary biology. These doll collections are still displayed for children, and this article considers how contemporary museums negotiate the conflicting impetuses to decolonize museums, to teach today’s young people about the prejudices of their ancestors, and to engage with the widely accepted idea that all childhoods are defined by play.

Rotavirus A Infection Prevalence and Spatio-Temporal Genotype Shift among Under-Five Children in Amhara National Regional State, Ethiopia: A Multi-Center Cross-Sectional Study.

Background: Globally, rotavirus (RV) A (RVA) is the most common cause of severe and sometimes fatal diarrhea in young children. It is also the major cause of acute gastroenteritis among children in Ethiopia. Currently, the WHO has prequalified four RVA vaccines for universal childhood immunization. Ethiopia introduced the monovalent Rotarix vaccine into its national immunization program in 2013. Since then, only a few studies on the burden and genotype distribution of RVA infection post-vaccine introduction have been conducted (mostly at sentinel surveillance sites). Therefore, this study aimed to assess RVA prevalence and genotype distribution among children under five years in Ethiopia (February 2021-December 2022). Methods: This multi-center hospital-based cross-sectional study involved 537 diarrheic children under-five years old. Rotavirus A detection was conducted using a one-step reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR). Genotyping was conducted by Sanger sequencing of the VP7 (complete) and VP4 (partial) genes. Descriptive analysis and Pearson's chi-squared test were carried out using SPSS version 29. Phylogenetic analysis with 1000 bootstrap replicates was performed using MEGA version 11 software. Statistical significance was set at p < 0.05 for all analyses. Results: The prevalence of RVA infection among diarrheic children was 17.5%. The most prevalent G-types identified were G3 (37%), the previously uncommon G12 (28%), and G1 (20%). The predominant P-types were P[8] (51%), P[6] (29%), and P[4] (14%). The three major G/P combinations observed were G3P[8] (32.8%), G12P[6] (28.4%), and G1P[8] (19.4%). Phylogenetic analysis revealed clustering of Ethiopian strains with the globally reported strains. Many strains exhibited amino acid differences in the VP4 (VP8* domain) and VP7 proteins compared to vaccine strains, potentially affecting virus neutralization. Conclusions: Despite the high RVA vaccination rate, the prevalence of RVA infection remains significant among diarrheic children in Ethiopia. There is an observable shift in circulating RVA genotypes from G1 to G3, alongside the emergence of unusual G/P genotype combinations such as G9P[4]. Many of these circulating RVA strains have shown amino acid substitutions that may allow for neutralization escape. Therefore, further studies are warranted to comprehend the emergence of these unusual RVA strains and the diverse factors influencing the vaccine's diminished effectiveness in developing countries.

Investigating low birth weight and preterm birth as potential mediators in the relationship between prenatal infections and early child development: a linked administrative health data analysis

BackgroundPrenatal infections are associated with childhood developmental outcomes such as reduced cognitive abilities, emotional problems and other developmental vulnerabilities. However, there is currently a lack of research examining whether this...

Child Labour and Academic Performance of Pupils in Kizinda Kigoma Town Council of Bushenyi District, Uganda

This study examines child labour and academic performance of pupils in Kizinda-Kigoma schools of Bushenyi District. Findings revealed that the aspects of child labour engaged by pupils in Kizinda-KigomaTown Council of Bushenyi District include working as maids, carrying heavy utensils to fetch water, working at teachers’gardens, with the older family members, fetching water and cooking for teachers. Findings further revealed that the causes of school dropout among children in Kizinda-Kigoma town include school fees problem, poor learning environment, discrimination within the community, stigmatization by other pupils, poor means of transport to and from school, lack of motivation to the disabled group, and lack of facilities that fit the learning ability of the disabled children. Based on the findings, the study calls for the need to create gender-sensitive learning spaces for girls to ensure equitable education, and safeguarding girls in classrooms by eliminating violence there is need to encourage the student to attend school frequently and participate in at least one extracurricular activity at school or with other students. More so, there is need to Improve education quality to enhance student retention and success. Furthermore, there is urgent need to cost of acquiring education including school feeding facilities and increase universal child payments as part of a country's social safety system and other policy instruments that could promote more equitable education access. Keywords: Academic performance, Child labour, Education, Learning environment, Pupils

Preschool and child health: Evidence from China's universal child care reform

Early childhood education programs have been found to effectively promote children's social and cognitive development. However, the health impact of these programs is less understood. Using a quasi-experiment of the first universal child care reform in China from 2010, this paper aims to identify whether the preschool reform produces any short-term effects on health-related outcomes of preschoolers (3-6 years old). Specifically, this reform expands access to affordable preschools that provide full-day center-based education, with school meals and essential health services on campus. I exploit the variation in the number of newly established preschools across provinces and implement difference-in-differences and triple-difference strategies. Results confirm the effectiveness of this reform by showing a strong and positive impact on preschool attendance. This paper then documents the benefits to alleviating underweight among preschoolers. Estimates show a larger effect in rural areas, suggesting that the reform narrows rural-urban disparities in education access and undernutrition prevention. I also explore the impact on caregivers’ health consciousness and find improved health-seeking behavior when children get sick.

What Would Happen to Poverty in Africa if Most Aid Were Delivered as Social Cash Transfers? A Case Study of Uganda

This article explores the potentially game-changing idea of repurposing a major part of overseas development assistance (ODA) to fund the up-scaling of social cash transfers (SCTs) in Africa. The analysis contributes to the debate about how best to use global development aid by considering the idea of simply bypassing the aid industry and instead giving most funds directly to the poor. With Uganda as a case study, we use the UGAMOD microsimulation model to analyse the socio-economic impact of using a major part of the current aid envelope, which for 2017–2020 was on average 2.37 billion USD, to provide two types of SCTs, namely old-age pensions and child grants. The scenarios analysed include both universal and means-tested SCTs at different cost levels, ranging between 4 and 115 per cent of current annual ODA in Uganda. We demonstrate that allocating a major part of ODA to SCTs would, seen in isolation, lead to very considerable reductions in poverty. In one tested scenario, where most ODA is allocated for universal child support, it is predicted that about two-thirds of current poverty would be eliminated. Importantly, however, large-scale SCTs would also come with significant socio-economic allocation costs, as aid is shifted away from its current uses, much of which goes to the social sectors. We discuss what this may imply for government revenue generation and the timing of any potential scaling of SCTs. Lastly, we note that scaling of SCTs would have political economy implications, which would need to be better understood.

ANALYSIS OF THE IMMUNIZATION PROGRAM IN TRENGGALEK DISTRICT, EAST JAVA PROVINCE IN 2019 - 2021

The immunization program is aimed to reach herd immunity, is requires high immunization coverage. The coverage of Universal Child Immunization (UCI) at the Village level in Trenggalek District for the period 2019–2021 still had not reached the target (100%), 91.08% in 2019, 92.36% in 2020, and 89.17% in 2021. This study aimed to identify the causes of the problem and suggest alternative solutions. This observational descriptive study was conducted at the Trenggalek District Health Office in January 2023. Informants were 17 people (4 officers of the health office who were responsible for the immunization program and 13 immunization coordinators from the Public Health Center/PHC which in 2019–2021 had not reached the UCI coverage at Village level). Identification of root causes was using a fishbone diagram and determining the priority of root causes to be intervened with using the Capability, Accessibility, Readiness, and Leverage (CARL) method which was done through brainstorming with all respondents. There were identified 11 root causes of not achieving the UCI coverage at the Village level. The dominant factor affecting the root problem was the officers (81.81%). The root problem that received the highest score with the CARL method was the immunization officers did not give communication, information, and education to parents optimally. This happened because the officers only focused on the number of targets to reach. In each PHC, there needs to be a team that gives communication, information, and education to assist immunization officers in providing education and information about immunization. The Immunization Officer in the District Health Office needs to monitor and evaluate the immunization services and give feedback to the PHC periodically.

The Evaluation Of Universal Child Immunization (UCI) Management In The Work Area Of Bah Kapul Health Center, Siantar Sitalasari District In 2023

Background: Immunization is the governments promise to get Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially to decrease the number of infant death rates. Universal Child Immunization (UCI) is an indicator of success in basic immunization in babies immune against a disease. Purpose: To analyze the process of management in achieving UCI. Research Methods: The research used qualitative phenomenological methods. The objective of the research was to analyze the process of management in achieving UCI. The research used qualitative phenomenological methods. It was done in the working area of Bah Kapul Puskesmas. The data were gathered by conducting in-depth interviews with 8 Informantts from Surveillance and Immunization Section Head, the Heads of Puskesmas, participants of immunization program, and practice midwife. Result : The result of the research showed that human resources were inadequate since their qualification was not in accordance with the standards, training was only done by the participants, facility and infrastructure such as KMS preparation and the facility outside the building were inadequate, lacked of staff cars for immunization personnel, there was no counseling about immunization in the field, people were not interested in the program, there were ignorance and lack of involvement of cross-sectors, and there was no monitoring from the Heads of Puskesmas for immunization outside the building. Conclusion : The Heads of Puskesmas should monitor directly immunization service outside the building and not only monitor through the report. The management of Puskesmas should provide counseling about the importance of immunization for targeted parents before posyandu service is done. The cross-sectors should support the implementation of immunization, actively play and collaborate in its implementation.

Universal Free School Meals Policy and Childhood Obesity.

The Community Eligibility Provision (CEP), a universal free school meals policy, increases school meal participation by allowing schools in low-income areas to provide free breakfast and lunch to all students; however, its impact on obesity remains uncertain. The objective of this study is to estimate the association of CEP with child obesity. School obesity prevalence was calculated using BMI measurements collected annually between 2013 and 2019 from students in California public schools in grades 5, 7, and 9. To estimate the association of CEP with obesity, we used a difference-in-differences approach for staggered policy adoption with an outcome regression model conditional on covariates, weighted by student population size. The analysis included 3531 CEP-eligible schools using school-level obesity prevalence calculated from 3 546 803 BMI measurements. At baseline, on average, 72% of students identified as Hispanic, 11% identified as white, 7% identified as Black, and 80% were eligible for free or reduced-price meals. Baseline obesity prevalence was 25%. Schools that participated in CEP were associated with a 0.60-percentage-point net decrease in obesity prevalence after policy adoption (95% confidence interval: -1.07 to -0.14 percentage points, P = .01) compared with eligible, nonparticipating schools, corresponding with a 2.4% relative reduction, given baseline prevalence. Meals served increased during this period in CEP-participating schools only. In a balanced sample of California schools, CEP participation was associated with a modest net decrease in obesity prevalence compared with eligible, nonparticipating schools. These findings add to the growing literature revealing potential benefits of universal free school meals for children's well-being.

The effects of a universal income transfer on food insecurity within households

Abstract Using the public-use files of the Canadian Community Health Survey and a difference-in-differences methodology, we estimate the impact of a universal income transfer (the Universal Child Care Benefit) on food insecurity, separately for adults and children within households. The income transfer reduced the risk of overall food insecurity by 20% at the child level, and the effect was larger in households with lower education or income. The transfer also reduced the likelihood of moderate/severe food insecurity among adults in single-parent families, as well as adults and children in households with secondary education or less. These findings withstand several robustness checks.

The impact of parental benefits on disadvantaged households

AbstractOver the past 25 years, the Government of Quebec (Canada) has introduced a number of relatively novel policies aimed at fighting poverty such as the Universal Child Care Program (UCCP) in 1997 and the Quebec Parental Insurance Program (QPIP) in 2006. Since its inception, the QPIP has provided a means‐tested supplementary benefits scheme for disadvantaged households. The scheme yields a well‐defined kink in the benefits schedule with respect to two entirely exogenous criteria. Using the QPIP administrative data files from 2006 to 2017, we estimate the causal impact of the supplemental benefits on leave duration and participation of poor households within a sharp Regression Kink Design (RKD) approach. Our results indicate that single mothers are relatively responsive to additional benefits. Conversely, partnered mothers are not found to respond to the supplemental benefits, irrespective of fathers’ own participation in the parental leave. The Canadian government is currently considering introducing a similar parental leave program. Our results may prove useful for the design of the program.

Pengetahuan Ibu Dalam Upaya Pemberian Imunisasi Dasar Pada Anak Di Kepulauan Manipa Tahun 2021

Immunization is one of intervention to give immune for the baby/child with the procedure input vaccine into the body so the body could make antibody against to disease spesificly. Immunization services for baby/child at Manipa Islands 2021 have not yet reached Universal Child Immunization. It was mean more than 90% had achieved. They are BCG (50%), DPT (40%), Hepatitis B (20%), Polio (60%) and Campak (10%). The aim of this research to know between knowledge with mother’s effort for giving immunization in children at Manipa Islands 2021. This research is analysis description with cross sectional study. All of mothers who have child 12-23 month at Manipa Islands 2021, as respondent have taken by total sampling (30 respondent) and used chi-square with significant level α=0,055. Result of research has showed that there was relationship between knowledge with mother’s effort for giving immunization. Knowledge p=0,010,. For respondent to more interesting in giving immunization for children base on their ages to protection from some disease.