United States Olympic Committee Research Articles

Operational Characteristics of a Normabaric Hypoxic System

Introduction: Several studies have demonstrated beneficial performance effects in endurance athletes following completion of approximately four weeks of “high-low” altitude training (Levine and Stray-Gundersen 1997; Rusko 1996). Athletes who utilize “high-low” altitude training typically live/sleep at a simulated or natural elevation > 2000 m, and train at a relatively low elevation (< 750 m). The Hypoxico Altitude TentTM (HAT) is a commercially available, normobaric hypoxic system that allows one individual to rest/sleep in an artificial altitude environment, and purportedly simulates a maximum elevation of 4200 m. The HAT has been marketed as a safe and effective way for athletes to “sleep high and train low”. However, there are minimal data on the safety and efficacy of these commercial simulated altitude systems, particularly among the population most likely to utilize them, i.e., elite athletes (Wilber 2001). Therefore, the purpose of this study was to evaluate the operational characteristics of the Hypoxico Altitude TentTM using international level athletes as subjects. Methods: Female (n = 3) and male (n = 7) U.S. National Team athletes slept in the HAT for five consecutive nights, ∼ 8 hrs per night, at a simulated altitude of 2500 m (FIO2 ∼15.3%). The athletes were distance runners, racewalkers, rowers, and paddlers who lived and trained at ∼150 m at the U.S. Olympic Training Center (Chula Vista, CA) during the non-sleep portion of the day. Included in this group were four athletes who competed in the 2000 Olympics. Temperature and relative humidity (RH) were measured every 30 min using a digital barotemp device (Fisher Scientific). Measurements of FIO2 and FICO2 were made every 30 min via zirconium oxide (S-3A; Applied Electrochemistry) and infrared (LB-2; Applied Electrochemistry) gas analyzers, respectively. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to evaluate mean differences over time. Results: Mean temperature within the HAT was 20 ± 2°C, which remained relatively stable provided the HAT was used in an air-conditioned room. Mean RH within the HAT was 86 ± 4%. For one subject, RH increased to as high as 95% by the end of an overnight exposure. [CO2] increased rapidly and stabilized within 60 min. Mean FICO2 over the duration of the 8-hr sleep period was 0.7 ± 0.1%, which was significantly higher (p < 0.05) compared with baseline values (0.03–0.04%). [O2] decreased by 10% to 15% in the initial 2 to 3 hrs of sleep. Mean FIO2 over the duration of the 8-hr sleep period was 14.4 ± 0.4% (∼3000 m), which was significantly lower (p < 0.05) versus the baseline FIO2 of 15.3 ± 0.2% (∼2500 m). Questionnaires collected each day within 30 min of awakening indicated minimal physical and/or psychological side effects. Discussion: The most important finding of the present study was the significant 16-fold increase in [CO2] inside the HAT that occurred in the initial 60 min of the 8-hr sleep period. Although mean FICO2 (0.7%) did not approach unhealthy levels (> 3.0%), we were concerned that it might compromise the overnight recovery of the athletes. This does not appear to have been true, as evidenced by the fact that the athletes reported minimal discomfort or side effects on post-sleep questionnaires. The other interesting finding was the significant decrement in FIO2 (10–15%) that occurred primarily in the initial 2 to 3 hrs of sleep. This progressive decrease in FIO2 was observed to a greater degree in taller/larger athletes, and therefore may be related to differences in thoracic cavity size and VE. We concluded that despite some concerns with [CO2] and [O2] stabilization, the HAT has the potential of providing a relatively comfortable normobaric hypoxic environment, thereby allowing athletes to “sleep high and train low”. Acknowledgements: Supported by the United States Olympic Committee

EFFECT OF HIGH INTENSITY SUBMAXIMAL WORK, WITH OR WITHOUT A REST PERIOD, ON SUBSEQUENT VO2MAX

A common protocol to evaulate endurance athletes is a two-step lactate profile-VO2max test. A typical procedure provides 20–30 min rest between profile and max. The effect of the profile and/or the rest period on the subsequent VO2max value is not known. PURPOSE: To examine effects of preceding high intensity submaximal exercise, with or without rest, on a subsequent rapid ramp VO2max test. METHODS: Ten endurance-trained males completed three separate exercise trails: an incremental run to fatigue (MAX), a continuous lactate profile-VO2max test (C), and a discontinuous lactate profile-VO2max test (DC). Protocol for C and DC were identical except for a 20-minute rest period between the lactate profile and VO2max test during DC. All trials were separated by 24 hours. MAX was always completed first; C and DC were randomized between the second and third day. RESULTS: No differences in VO2max between trials were evident (MAX = 62.67 ml/kg/min, C = 61.20 ml/kg/min, DC = 58.29 ml/kg/min; p = .059). Subjects with a ± 7.5% fall in VO2max from MAX (Responders) were compared to those with < 7.5% fall (Non-Responders). DC Responders (n = 5) had higher VO2max during MAX than DC Non-Responders (n = 5) (Responders = 67.64 ml/kg/min, Non-Responders = 57.70 ml/kg/min; p = .008). C Responders (n = 2) achieved a VO2max of 71.05 ml/kg/min during MAX; C Non-Responders (n = 8) achieved a VO2max of 60.58 ml/kg/min during MAX. CONCLUSIONS: The trend for lower DC VO2max values, coupled with the DC Responder results, suggests a reduction in VO2max in some athletes if maximal exercise is preceded by high intensity submaximal exercise and a rest period. The effects of preceding high intensity exercise without rest on the achievement of VO2max are still unclear. Supported by the United States Olympic Committee.

Uphill Cross Country Skiing As A Determinant Of Overall Performance In Elite Nordic Combined Athletes

Introduction: While considerable research has been done on the biomechanics of biathlon and cross country skiing, little work has been undertaken detailing cross country skiing performance of nordic combined athletes. For this reason, cycle length (CL), cycle rate (CR), and cycle velocity (CV) were examined on three portions of a major climb at Soldier Hollow, UT (site of all 2002 Olympic nordic ski events), allowing the completion of the first nordic skiing intra-hill analysis. It was hypothesized that performance on the whole hill and most specifically, on the hill crest, would be related to overall ski race time (ST). Methods: Data was collected during the 2001 Nordic Combined World Cup 3 × 5 km relay, held in Park City, UT, January 21, 2001. Data was recorded on a 550 meter uphill climb at three locations: base of hill (10°), mid-climb (10°), and crest of hill (3°). Athletes were videotaped through a fifteen meter course section. Video encompassing one complete cycle (pole plant to pole plant) of twelve athletes (seven fastest ski times and remaining US athletes) was digitized using Peak5 software (Peak Performance Technologies Inc., Englewood, CO). Digitized position data and video-derived time data were then used to calculate CL, CR, and CV. Two-tailed Pearson correlations were calculated between ST, CL, CR, and CV for the entire hill, base of hill, mid-climb, and hill crest. Levels of significance for all correlations was set at p < 0.05. Results: Significant correlations were found between CL and CR for the whole hill and each individual section (whole hill: r = −.71, base of hill: r = −.87, mid-climb: r = .60, hill crest: r = −.82). CL and CV were significantly correlated for the whole hill (r = .78) and mid-climb (r = .94). Only during the mid-climb was ST significantly related to the other variables (CL: r = −.64, CR: r = −.68, CV: r = −.72). Discussion: Qualitative observations of the hill crest during earlier races showed some skiers significantly slowing upon reaching the end of the climb. For this reason, it was hypothesized that those who maintained their CL, CR, and CV at and over the hill crest would achieve the best ski times. In reality, however, performance on the middle section of the climb was most related to overall ski performance. The strong relationship between CL and CV for the whole hill (r = .78) and during the mid-climb (r = .94) indicates an emphasis on CL more than CR to maintain CV. Additionally, this study suggests that significant uphill training should be included in a cross country skiing workout regimen. Acknowledgements: This study was supported by the United States Olympic Committee and the United States Ski and Snowboard Association.

EFFICACY OF ASTHMA MEDICATION REGIMEN IN ELITE ATHLETES WITH EXERCISE-INDUCED ASTHMA

Elite speedskaters previously diagnosed with exercise-induced asthma (EIA) were evaluated to determine the efficacy of a prescribed asthma medication regimen. Subjects (n = 8, including five 1998 Olympians) were female and male members of the U.S. National Short Track Speedskating team (20 ± 2 yr: 170 ± 9 cm; 67.1 ± 3.4 kg) who were in training at the U.S. Olympic Training Center in Colorado Springs. CO (elevation 1860m). Standard spirometry (FVC, FEV1, FEF25–75, PEF) was conducted prior to and at 5, 10, and 15 min after the athletes completed a 1000-m on-ice time trial (8–10°C, 30–35% RH, 612–615 mm Hg). The presence of EIA was based on a postexercise decrement in FEV1 ± 10%. EIA was evaluated during the 1998 and 2000 competitive seasons. All subjects had been diagnosed with EIA during the 1998 season and were placed on a “first line” asthma medication regimen (albuterol); prescribed medications were used in conjunction with the 2000 test. A repeated measures ANOVA was used to evaluate mean differences between the two seasons to determine the efficacy of the prescribed asthma medications. Compared to the 1998 season, no significant differences were observed during the 2000 season for any of the spirometric indices, either preexercise or postexercise. Maximal postexercise decrements (recorded at either 10 or 15 min post) for the 1998 and 2000 seasons, respectively. were: FVC (−17, −16%); FEV1(−17, −14%); FEF25–75(−21, −15%); and PEF(−17, −14%). Six of the eight athletes were EIA-positive on both tests, whereas asthma medication was effective in eliminating EIA symptoms in the other two athletes. These data suggest that, in general, standard asthma medications are not effective in reducing EIA in elite speedskaters. It is possible that more potent “second line” medications may be necessary to control EIA in elite athletes. Supported by the United States Olympic Committee

GENDER DIFFERENCES IN PULMONARY FUNCTION OF ELITE ICE HOCKEY PLAYERS

It has been reported that a high percentage of ice arena athletes are susceptible to exercise-induced asthma (EIA). Few studies have been completed regarding gender differences in pulmonary functions of EIA positive (EIA+) athletes. Research suggests little gender difference. Pulmonary function testing was completed on 31 male (M) and 33 female (F) elite National Team ice hockey players using standard spirometry. Forced exhalation time (FET) and maximal decrements in forced vital capacity (FVC), forced expiratory volume in the first second (FEV1), mid-expiratory flow rate (FEF25–75%), and peak flow (PEF) were measured after high-intensity on-ice exercise. A ± 7% post-exercise fall in FEV1 was considered EIA+; six members of each team (19.4% M, 18.2% F) were diagnosed as EIA+. Maximum fall in FEV1 was equal between genders (−10.1% M, 10.2% F) and large but non-significant differences were noted in PEF fall (−10.6% M, −20.4% F). M suffered greater falls in FVC (−14.3% vs. −4.0%, p = 0.002); F showed greater falls in FEF25–75% (−21.4% vs. +2.7%, p = 0.001). A non-integrated interpretation of FEF25–75% suggests small airway dysfunction in F and normal small airway function in M. However, the large post-exercise fall in FVC suggests small airway dysfunction in M. This concept is supported by the lack of interaction between EIA diagnosis and FET for either gender. We conclude that caution should be used when interpreting mid-expiratory flows for EIA diagnosis. Masking of FEF25–75% by large falls in FVC may be resolved by examining iso-volume mid-expiratory flow rates. Supported by the United States Olympic Committee.

Asthma in United States Olympic athletes who participated in the 1998 Olympic Winter Games

Background: About one of every 5 athletes who participated in the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta had a past history of asthma, had symptoms that suggested asthma, or took asthma medications. No previous study has determined the prevalence of asthma in all US athletes who participated in an Olympic Winter Games. Objectives: We sought to determine how many US athletes who participated in the 1998 Olympic Winter Games had a past history of asthma, had symptoms that suggested asthma, or indicated taking a medication used to treat asthma. Methods: We evaluated responses to questions that asked about allergic and respiratory diseases in the United States Olympic Committee Medical History Questionnaire that was completed by all 196 athletes who represented the United States at the 1998 Olympic Winter Games in Nagano, Japan. Results: Forty-three (21.9%) of the 196 athletes had a previous diagnosis of asthma, and 36 (18.4%) recorded use of an asthma medication at some time in the past. Forty-four (22.4%) reported use of an asthma medication, a diagnosis of asthma, or both (our basis for the diagnosis of asthma). Thirty-four (17.4%) of the athletes were currently taking an asthma medication at the time that they completed the questionnaire or indicated that they took these medications on a permanent or semipermanent basis and were considered to have active asthma. Athletes who participated in Nordic combined, cross-country, and short track events had the highest prevalence of having been told that they had asthma or had taken an asthma medication in the past (60.7%) in contrast with only one (2.8%) of the 36 athletes who participated in bobsled, biathlon, luge, and ski jumping. Eighteen (24%) of 75 athletes who participated in alpine, long track, figure skating, snow boarding, and curling had a previous diagnosis of asthma or recorded use of an asthma medication. Conclusions: We conclude that asthma appeared to have been more common in athletes who participated in the 1998 Winter Games than in athletes who participated in either the 1996 or 1984 Summer Games. Clearly, asthma rates vary widely among sports. This suggests that the environment in which exercise is performed is important in leading to a decrease in the amount of exercise required to trigger asthma and perhaps in causing injury to the airways. (J Allergy Clin Immunol 2000;106:267-71.)

Part VIII: A New Agenda (1980–1990)

This is the eighth of nine segments designed to commemorate the NAGWS Centennial, 1889–1999. This segment will focus on the accomplishments of ten past-presidents who served from 1980 to 1990. The 1980s saw a major setback to Title IX, when the Grove City College decision interpreted Title IX as applying only to the specific program or activity earmarked for federal assistance, and not to the institution or school as a whole (Mottinger, 1988). NAGWS actively lobbied for the passage of the Civil Rights Restoration Act. This act would reinterpret Title IX more broadly, as Congress had originally intended, prohibiting educational institutions from discriminating based on sex. In 1983, the NCAA co-opted the AIAW (which had been born from NAGWS in 1979) and began to oversee women's intercollegiate athletics. As the last AIAW presidents, the following individuals placed their mark on the shaping of women's intercollegiate athletics: Christine Grant (1980–1981), Donna Lopiano (1981–1982), Merrily Baker (1982–1983), and Virginia Hunt (1983 elect). With the NCAA takeover of intercollegiate sport for women, challenges continued for the control of the rules for girls’ and women's sport. By the end of the 1980s. NAGWS stopped publishing the rules for women's basketball. The National Federation published the high school rules, while the NCAA published the collegiate rules (Hult. 1991). In 1983, NAGWS, the United States Olympic Committee (USOC), and the Women's Sports Foundation sponsored a major conference, “The New Agenda: A Blueprint for the Future of Women's Sports,” which led to the creation of National Girls and Women in Sports Day. NAGWS continued its strong bond with the USOC and the National Governing Bodies. By the end of the decade. NAGWS was redefining its role in equity for girls and women in sport. With a steady decrease in the number of women in leadership positions in sport, NAGWS was ready to focus on increasing female leadership in the athletic arena.—Shawn Ladda, Manhattan College, Feature Editor.

Part VI: The Age of Rapid Change (1960–1970)

This is the sixth of nine segments designed to commemorate the NAGWS Centennial, 1889–1999. This segment highlights the accomplishments of ten past-presidents who served from 1960 to 1970. In this decade, DGWS leaders continued to grapple with the idea of competition for girls, finally reaching a consensus to change the organization's philosophical statement from “a girl for every sport and a sport for every girl” to a more inclusive model for all skill levels. Thus, DGWS included interscholastic and intercollegiate athletics as acceptable extensions of instructional and intramural programs (Hult, 1999). In 1960, Doris Duke donated a half of a million dollars, designated for the development of women's sports, to the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) (Gerber, Felshin, Berlin, & Wyrich, 1974). The USOC, in conjunction with NAGWS, formed the Women's Advisory Board to the Olympic Development Committee. The result was the creation of five national institutes whose goal was to train women to teach and coach Olympic sports for women. The institutes trained over 25,000 women (Hult, 1991). As it became more apparent that women would be participating in intercollegiate athletics, NAGWS formed the Commission for Intercollegiate Athletics for Women (CIAW). By the end of the 1960s, the seeds were planted for organized intercollegiate competition.—Shawn Ladda, Manhattan College

3-D ANALYSIS OF V-2 SKI SKATING DURING JUNIOR WORLD BIATHLON COMPETITION

1694 V-2 ski-skating is used extensively in biathlon skiing on flat and gradual uphill terrain. This technique requires a double pole plant for each stride within a cycle. In spite of the wide spread use of V-2 in biathlon, cross-country and nordic combined skiing events, no detailed biomechanical analysis has been done. The purpose of this study was to define characteristics of the V-2 technique on an 8% slope during actual competition. Male biathletes (N=62) were video taped at 30 Hz during the 10 km sprint race. A 24-point digitizing model was utilized in analyzing 15 biathletes for the 2nd lap (of 3). Subjects were selected as representative of race finish and included 3 of 4 U.S. biathletes. Variables selected for analysis included: CM measures (cycle velocity, length, & rate), temporal measures (pole & ski contact time), and body segment angles (shoulder, elbow, & knee). Cycle velocity was related to race velocity and cycle length but not cycle rate (r=0.81, 0.81, and 0.21, respectively, p<0.05). Correlations between poling time (34% of cycle time) and cycle velocity and cycle length were −0.85 and −0.87 (p<0.05). Average single ski contact was 60% of total cycle time with double support 20% of cycle time. Cycle velocity correlated with elbow and knee ROM (r=−0.71 and 0.55, p<0.05) but not shoulder ROM (r=0.44). These data show that faster skiers have shorter poling times with constant elbow angles during the power phase of poling and suggest that the upper body component is important in V-2 ski-skating. Supported by the United States Olympic Committee

Asthma in United States Olympic athletes who participated in the 1996 Summer Games

Background: Asthma prevalence appears to be increasing in the general population. We sought to determine whether asthma prevalence has also increased in highly competitive athletes. Objective: Our aim was to determine how many United States Olympic athletes who were chosen to participate in the 1996 Summer Olympic Games had a past history of asthma or symptoms that suggested asthma or took asthma medications. Methods: We analyzed responses to questions that asked about allergic and respiratory diseases on the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) Medical History Questionnaire that was completed by all athletes who were chosen to represent the US at the 1996 Summer Olympic Games in Atlanta. Results: Of the 699 athletes who completed the questionnaire, 107 (15.3%) had a previous diagnosis of asthma, and 97 (13.9%) recorded use of an asthma medication at some time in the past. One hundred seventeen (16.7%) reported use of an asthma medication, a diagnosis of asthma, or both (which was our basis for the diagnosis of asthma). Seventy-three (10.4%) of the athletes were currently taking an asthma medication at the time that they were processed in Atlanta or noted that they took asthma medications on a permanent or semipermanent basis and were considered to have active asthma. Athletes who participated in cycling and mountain biking had the highest prevalence of having been told that they had asthma or had taken an asthma medication in the past (50%). Frequency of active asthma varied from 45% of cyclists and emountain bikers to none of the divers and weight lifters. Only about 11% of the athletes who participated in the 1984 Summer Olympic Games were reported to have had exercise-induced asthma on the basis of other criteria that may have been less restrictive. On the basis of these less restrictive criteria, more than 20% of the athletes who participated in the 1996 Olympic Games might have been considered to have had asthma. Conclusions: Asthma appeared to have been more prevalent in athletes who participated in the 1996 Summer Games than in the general population or in those who participated in the 1984 Summer Games. This study also suggests that asthma may influence the sport that an athlete chooses. (J Allergy Clin Immunol 1998;102:722-6.)

America's Sports Medicine Team Goes for the Gold

In addition to the distinction of representing the United States in international athletic competition, the opportunity to be a member of the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) Medical Team epitomizes the paramount professional experience in the field of sports medicine. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1996;24(5):293. doi:10.2519/jospt.1996.24.5.293

Clenbuterol

Clenbuterol is a recently popular drug used by athletes in many sports for its purported anabolic effects and reduction of subcutaneous fat. It is a beta-2 (beta 2) agonist prescribed overseas as a bronchodilator, but not approved for use in this country. It is on the banned substance list of the United States Olympic Committee. To avoid any erosion of confidence, physicians caring for athletes need accurate information regarding clenbuterol. Such information is unavailable within the routine medical environs. A review of the literature of animal husbandry reveals that this drug, when administered in doses far greater than those required for bronchodilation, does indeed increase the deposition rate of lean mass and retard adipose gain. There are no human studies available. Animal studies were conducted on laboratory and slaughter stock. No investigation into long-term cardiovascular side effects has been undertaken. The rate of extrapolation from animal studies to unsupervised human usage is alarming. If this category of drugs does preserve lean mass in humans, there are legitimate medical applications. Trials of efficacy and safety are needed.

Sport psychology interventions

Sport Psychology Interventions shows professionals how to help athletes get the most out of their sport experience and maintain a healthy lifestyle. Edited by Shane Murphy, former sport psychologist for the United States Olympic Committee, this practical guide explains how to assist athletes at all levels in facing the special challenges and unique problems that are common in today's sports world.Unlike texts that discuss psychological interventions aimed directly at improving athletic performance, Sport Psychology Interventions focuses on helping athletes enjoy their participation more and, as a result, perform better and achieve their goals by-managing their lives successfully, -growing and developing as individuals, and-experiencing sport as a positive learning process.This book is written by internationally recognized sport psychologists--experts who are familiar with the struggles and triumphs of athletes. Using real-life examples, these contributors address issues that are typically encountered by physicians, athletic trainers, psychologists, counselors, and health care professionals working with athletes. They use case studies extensively throughout the book to bring these issues to life.Part I presents a variety of intervention models. By studying each model in the context of its application to a particular kind of athlete, the contributors are able to address specific issues related to-child athletes, -competitive recreational athletes, -student athletes, -female athletes, -elite athletes, and-other sport groups.The book explains all of the prevalent intervention models in modern sport psychology: -Life development -Educational -Multisystemic -Family systems -Organizational-Developmental-Marital therapy-Cognitive-behavioralEach chapter begins with one or more case studies that show how each intervention applies to sport psychology and how that intervention is used.Part II examines issues commonly encountered by many helping professionals in the sport setting. Case studies illustrate how sport psychology can be used in counseling athletes who are experiencing special circumstances, including-injury, -alcohol and drug use, -eating disorders and weight management, -career transitions, and-overtraining and burnout.

Volunteer physicians working with the United States Olympic Committee.

Volunteer physicians working with the United States Olympic Committee.

A Physiological Profile of the Elite Soccer Athlete

From the Cincinnati Sportsmedicine and Orthopaedic Center and The Deaconess Hospital, Cincinnati, OH. Research Funded by the Cincinnati Sportsmedicine Research and Education Foundation and the United States Olympic Committee. The purpose of this study was to develop a physiological profile of the elite soccer athlete. Protocols were developed to assess flexibility, knee ligament translation, body composition, anaerobic power, lower extremity functional performance, and muscle strength. Eighty-three male U.S. National Team players provided data for this study. Different protocols were used over the years the data was gathered. Each area was tested, using a subset of the total group. The physiological profile of the elite soccer player was compiled from results in each area tested. The players were flexible, on the whole, although 17% of the players demonstrated hamstring tightness. All but one player tested had less than 2.5 mm anterior/posterior (A/P) knee ligament translation. The average body fat was 9.5%, and all athletes performed normally on the function tests. The mean power output on Wingate testing was 8.1 Watts per kilogram body weight. The average hamstring-to-quadricep torque ratio (H/Q) at 60 degrees /sec was 56% (right) and 56.6% (left), and at 450 degrees /sec, was 67.1% and 70.1 %. Identification and measurement of these key physiological qualities for the elite soccer athlete will provide standards and a baseline for trainers, coaches, players, and future investigators. J Orthop Sports Phys Ther 1990;12(4):147-152.

The Gay Olympics: San Francisco Arts &amp; Athletics v. United States Olympic Committee

The Gay Olympics: San Francisco Arts &amp; Athletics v. United States Olympic Committee

Detection of Androgenic Anabolic Steroids in Urine

Virtually all professional and amateur sporting organizations forbid the use of androgenic anabolic steroids (AAS). The International Olympic Committee, United States Olympic Committee, and more recently the National Collegiate Athletic Association enforce the regulations by conducting urine testing. Over the past 3 years we have conducted about 8000 tests for AAS in urine and discovered several hundred positive cases. AAS when present in urine can be detected by screening and confirmatory tests using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry.

The Use and Abuse of Anabolic Steroids in Olympic-Caliber Athletes

Self-medication with anabolic steroids by athletes, particularly in the sports of weight lifting and track and field, has become increasingly popular. In the 1983 Pan American Games, 15 athletes were disqualified for taking anabolic steroids. Athletes take steroids believing the steroids will allow increased periods of intensive training and will increase muscle strength with proper weight training. The athletes assume this increased strength and training will translate into better athletic performance. Most athletes taking anabolic steroids are taking very large doses with no thought as to the potential adverse side effects. They ignore the possibility of long-term problems relating to hypertension, liver dysfunction, and atherosclerosis for what they see as the immediate performance benefits. In an attempt to keep sports competition "clean" and to help protect athletes from harmful drugs, the International Olympic Committee (IOC) and the United States Olympic Committee have rules stating that the use of anabolic steroids is illegal. Drug testing is performed in Olympic and in many international competitions. Those people found using anabolic steroids are disqualified. This use of anabolic steroids indicates that for some athletes the need to win or to maximize performance supersedes any worries about future health.

Olympics drug testing: basis for future study—

After the summer Olympic Games of the next few days have ended, a study committee will meet to examine the results of testing of athletes for possible use of banned substances. Kenneth S. Clarke, PhD, director of the United States Olympic Committee's (USOC) Sports Medicine Division in Colorado Springs, Colo, says the study group will report its "consensus or disagreement" to the USOC and try to offer recommendations. The past months have added up to what Clarke terms "an explosion" in knowledge of, and publicity about, the possible extent of some athletes' use of potentially dangerous drugs to try to enhance their performance in sports. The anabolic steroids have received particular attention. Clarke says an important question that the post-Olympics study committee faces is the extent of the effort needed to get at the heart of the problem. New USOC officers will take office in January 1985, and the drug-control

The Development of Models for Sport Psychology: Examining the USOC Guidelines

A review of the literature finds a series of articles discussing developmental problems in the field of sport psychology, particularly regarding the definition of professional roles and the establishment of credentialing criteria for these roles. A committee formed by the United States Olympic Committee was the first to establish concrete guidelines, which are reviewed here for their potential positive and negative effects as a model for sport psychology.