United Nations Member States Research Articles

A summary of updated UNSCEAR evaluations on medical and occupational exposures to ionising radiation and call for participation in UNSCEAR Global Surveys on radiation exposure

Abstract This paper summarises key findings of United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation (UNSCEAR) 2020/2021 Report on the evaluations of medical and occupational exposures to ionising radiation. Medical exposure remains by far the largest human-made source of radiation exposure of the population. In the period 2009–18, about 4.2 billion medical radiological examinations were performed annually, resulting in an effective dose per caput of 0.57 mSv. The worldwide annual number of workers exposed to natural and human-made sources of ionising radiation is estimated to be ~24 million in the period 2010–14. About 52% of those were employed in the sectors that involve exposure to natural sources of radiation. The annual effective dose was estimated to be around 2.0 mSv for workers exposed to natural sources (excluding radon exposure in workplaces other than mines) and 0.5 mSv for workers exposed to human-made sources. It is important to motivate United Nations Member States to fully participate in UNSCEAR’s global surveys on radiation exposure. Future surveys will be relevant and useful and adapted to changing data sources and uses of radiation across the world.

Nourishing sustainability: clinical nutrition’s impact on climate change

IntroductionPreserving our planet's delicate balance is not merely a choice but a responsibility we owe to future generations, ensuring equitable, and sustainable world. The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations (UN) member states in 2015, offers a collective vision for global peace and prosperity. Central to this agenda are the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which call for unified action from all nations, irrespective of their developmental status, under a global partnership. MethodThis paper examines the SDGs' framework and its applicability to clinical nutrition (CN). We provide a comprehensive narrative review relating to the integration of SDGs in CN practices. Whilst recognising the importance of the SDG framework we elected to focus specifically upon the environmental aspects of CN care. ResultsThe analysis revealed that the SDGs provide a robust framework for promoting sustainability in clinical nutrition. Key findings highlight the interconnection between health improvement and other SDGs, such as poverty reduction and climate action. Effective CN practices contribute to broader sustainable development by ensuring better health outcomes, which in turn support economic growth and reduce inequalities. Additionally, strategies in CN that focus on reducing waste and improving resource efficiency align with environmental sustainability goals. Conclusion: The 17 SDGs offer a comprehensive guide for advancing sustainability across various fields, including clinical nutrition. By adopting these goals, healthcare providers can implement holistic strategies that not only improve health outcomes but also support broader efforts to achieve global sustainability.

Necessity for a global patient co-owned cloud (GPOC)

BackgroundThe use of Cloud-based storage of personal health records has increased globally. The GPOC Series introduces the concept of a Global Patient co-Owned Cloud (GPOC) of personal health records. Here, we present the GPOC Series’ international survey on the necessity of a GPOC.MethodsOnline global survey with invitations sent to health ministries and major organisations. It received answers from health ministries and affiliated advisors of all 193 United Nations (UN) member states, 2 UN observer states (Holy See & Palestine) and 1 de facto UN non-member state (Taiwan) and from 18 major international organisations. The survey examined a dozen aspects encompassing demographics, privacy, sharing, movability, co-ownership, research, company usage, regulation and the necessity of a GPOC.ResultsThe GPOC Survey elicited responses from 267 individuals from 214 entities, including all UN member states, and major international organisations. Twelve domains were identified, covering demographics, correctness, privacy, commercial use, medical and non-medical research, co-ownership, data sharing, record movement, ownership centralisation, patient rights, environmental concerns, and foundation creation. Results show high agreement on most issues, including support for co-ownership (89%) and movement of personal health records (84%). Disagreement was prominent regarding centralised ownership by the state (64%) and data sharing without consent (85%). Additionally, respondents expressed interest in a neutral, decentralised foundation for regulation (73%) and the environmental sustainability of electronic health records (84%).ConclusionsA Global Patient co-Owned Cloud (GPOC) of personal health records could significantly enhance patient independence and involvement in health management, supported by the near consensus agreement across various domains identified in our survey. This consensus underscores the potential of GPOC to democratise healthcare and align with UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The survey results demonstrate strong support for GPOC’s role in promoting evidence-based patient management, reducing information silos, and fostering ethical data sharing. Moreover, the overwhelming agreement on key principles of co-ownership, data sharing, and environmental sustainability highlights the global inclination for a decentralised, patient-controlled PHR platform. This platform stands to empower patients worldwide, advance precision medicine, and contribute to the global development and dissemination of artificial intelligence in healthcare.

Rescuing the Planet: Role of the United Nations+

Since its inception, the United Nations (UN) system has been instrumental in fulfilling the objectives of the UN Charter. Despite these successes, environmental degradation has escalated to critical levels especially in the last six decades. The prevailing development model, reliant on infinite natural resource extraction, is unjust and unsustainable. Growing scientific evidence on planetary boundary warns that this unbalanced developmental model is driving the humanity toward irreversible damage to essential ecological processes. Radical transformations and extraordinary cooperation among nations are required to reverse these. This paper argues that the UN system is critical in facilitating this extraordinary cooperation and charting pathways to a sustainable planetary future by harnessing its convening power, scientific & technical expertise and global presence. To achieve this, the UN must strive for stable and sustainable pathways as a common good by all the 193 member states. This commitment will require structural reforms, robust governance architecture, strengthened multilateralism, and, above all, moving away from artificial geographical boundaries while recognizing the critical role of the UN member states. As a corollary, the UN needs to build capacity and assist sovereign states in translating the ambitious action plans for our planetary future.

The coming microbial crisis: Our antibiotic bubble is about to burst

This month, the United Nations (UN) General Assembly will convene its second High-Level Meeting on antimicrobial resistance , urging UN member states to take decisive action against this growing threat. The US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) has released a list of the drug-resistant bacterial and fungal infections that pose the greatest concern to public health. Yet, despite increasing warnings from infectious disease experts, the public remains largely unaware of the true scale of the problem. In a world where antibiotics still protect us from bacterial infections, we are shielded from experiencing antimicrobial resistance as an immediate threat to our daily lives.

Is There a Need to Expand the Refugee Definition?

This article examines the urgency of protecting against displacement caused by climate change under international law and questions why Rohingya displacement has not been resolved even though it has been protected by international law, whether the harmonization of human rights approaches, national law, and international law towards refugees and climate refugees. This paper uses a literature review method and a normative legal approach by reviewing national and international human rights law. The findings of this paper suggest that many Rohingya continue to flee to safer countries, often taking enormous risks, including dangerous ocean crossings. The impacts of climate change can be categorized as persecution; the Refugee Convention requires that such persecution be due to race, religion, nationality, political opinion, or membership of a particular social group. Persecution alone is not enough. The difficulty is that the impacts of climate change are largely indiscriminate and not related to specific characteristics such as a person's background or beliefs. The Rohingya people have experienced violence, discrimination, and persecution for decades, and the international community has failed to protect them effectively. The international community has allowed Myanmar to carry out genocide against the Rohingya without taking any action, even though United Nations member states are obliged to protect their population from genocide, war crimes, ethnic cleansing, and crimes against humanity. National, international, and human rights laws play an important role in determining the legal status and rights of refugees in a country. All three must be embedded and integrated, starting from international law and its derivatives to national law, which contains humanitarian rights.

Exploring the Multifaceted Potential of Endangered Sturgeon: Caviar, Meat and By-Product Benefits.

Sturgeons are facing critical endangerment due to overfishing, habitat destruction, pollution and climate change. Their roe, highly prized as caviar, has driven the overexploitation, severely depleting wild populations. In recent years sturgeon aquaculture has experienced significant growth, primarily aimed at providing high-quality caviar and secondarily meat. This sector generates significant quantities of by-products, which are mainly treated as waste, being mostly discarded, impacting the environment, even though they are a source of bioactive molecules and potential applications in various sectors. This article presents a review of the proximate composition and nutritional value of sturgeon caviar and meat, also exploring the potential of the by-products, with an emphasis on the processing of these components, the chemical composition and the functional and bioactive properties. Although sturgeon caviar, meat, and by-products are highly valuable both nutritionally and economically, adopting sustainable practices and innovative approaches is crucial to ensuring the industry's future growth and maintaining ecological balance. Despite some limitations, like the deficient standardization of the methods for extracting and processing, sturgeon by-products have a tremendous potential to increase the overall value of sturgeon aquaculture and to promote a zero-waste approach, contributing to achieving the Sustainable Development Goals adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015.

A review of maternal near miss events in a tertiary teaching hospital- A tool for improving quality of obstetric care in developing countries: A descriptive study

: In 2015, the United Nations Member States adopted the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which include reducing the maternal mortality (MM) ratio by two-thirds by 2030. Maternal mortality rates are alarming, especially in low-income countries where 99% of all maternal deaths occurs. Maternal Near Miss event was described by the World Health Organization (WHO) as “A woman who is close to death survived a complication that occurred during pregnancy, delivery or up to 42 days of termination of pregnancy.” This concept was launched in the health system. Maternal near-miss audit was recognized as a useful tool to improve the quality of obstetric care. A descriptive study was conducted at PCMC’s Postgraduate Institute and YCM Hospital Pimpri Pune (Maharashtra) from 1st January 2020 to 30 June 2021. During the study period, Maternal Near miss (MNM) cases were identified as per WHO criteria for enrolment. This study reviewed near-miss cases with aim to study baseline assessment, to analyse cause and intervention to improve health cases.: Of total 9534 admissions, 130 mothers had severe maternal outcomes (114 maternal near-miss cases and 16 maternal deaths). 104(91.23%) MNM cases were between the ages of 20-35 years, 72.13% were from rural, 78(68.42%) were referred from health facilities.Seventy two(63.86%) were multigravida. Sixty Nine (60.53%) had hypertension in pregnancy followed by 62 (54.39%) had haemorrhage.: Our study concluded hypertension in pregnancy and haemorrhage are major causes of MNM cases. ICUs and blood banks play a pivotal role in the prevention of maternal mortality. Developing countries should aim to improve maternal health outcome by improving HDU/ICU facilities and blood bank to reduce maternal mortality.

Human rights education as a human right – A logical analysis based on Kanger’s theory of rights

This article provides a theoretical foundation to argue for an effective and meaningful realization of human rights education in school curricula and beyond. Despite emerging research on a content-related basis and large-scale initiatives, the practical realization of human rights education is mostly still a desideratum. By analyzing relevant documents by the United Nations (UN), particularly the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UNGA, 1948), this paper shows that human rights education is a human right itself. Upon joining the UN, member states pledged to provide human rights education to all citizens. However, the question what it means to ensure the right to human rights education is complex because the concept of ‘right’ is ambiguous. Thus, this manuscript logically analyzes the right to human rights education by means of Kanger’s theory of rights that encompasses a classification of all possible types of right. The analysis shows that the right to human rights education consists of two complex types of right that contain both a claim right as well as service rights. The author concludes that in order to meet the obligations of the UN Charta, UN member states are required (1) to provide mandatory human rights education in compulsory education and (2) to grant access to human rights education to all citizens.

The time for ambitious action is now: Science-based recommendations for plastic chemicals to inform an effective global plastic treaty

The ubiquitous and global ecological footprint arising from the rapidly increasing rates of plastic production, use, and release into the environment is an important modern environmental issue. Of increasing concern are the risks associated with at least 16,000 chemicals present in plastics, some of which are known to be toxic, and which may leach out both during use and once exposed to environmental conditions, leading to environmental and human exposure. In response, the United Nations member states agreed to establish an international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, the global plastics treaty. The resolution acknowledges that the treaty should prevent plastic pollution and its related impacts, that effective prevention requires consideration of the transboundary nature of plastic production, use and pollution, and that the full life cycle of plastics must be addressed. As a group of scientific experts and members of the Scientists' Coalition for an Effective Plastics Treaty, we concur that there are six essential “pillars” necessary to truly reduce plastic pollution and allow for chemical detoxification across the full life cycle of plastics. These include a plastic chemical reduction and simplification, safe and sustainable design of plastic chemicals, incentives for change, holistic approaches for alternatives, just transition and equitable interventions, and centering human rights. There is a critical need for scientifically informed and globally harmonized information, transparency, and traceability criteria to protect the environment and public health. The right to a clean, healthy, and sustainable environment must be upheld, and thus it is crucial that scientists, industry, and policy makers work in concert to create a future free from hazardous plastic contamination.

HOSPITAL ADMINISTRATION IN A PERIPHERAL REMOTE LOCATION HOSPITAL: A EVIDENCE BASED STUDY

Objective: The organisation of the human society has undergone a unique transition throughout the last decades. With the rise of ever growing technologization and disruptive innovations, populations also demand more social and environmental initiatives from firms and governments. In 2015, the United Nations (UN) member states agreed upon a 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development. Developing a sustainable UHC is decisive to ensure better economic prospects and social equality across socioeconomic classes. This can be achieved by lowering the barriers to access health services to the most vulnerable groups and improve mortality and disability rates in the potential workforce. Methods: The present study was conducted in a remote location defence hospital catering to the health care needs of serving personnel of Indian armed forces and civilians residing in this peripheral area. The basic specialties including Obstetrics, paediatrics, medicine and general surgery are provided at this centre 24*7 by the dedicated medical officers of Indian Armed forces. Results: Sustainability of care continuously evolves towards becoming a major factor for public healthcare organisations, and more accountability will likely be demanded of managers to deliver on each aspect of its triple bottom line. This study shows that prevention and patient empowerment both carry great potential to attain this objective. Conclusion: It is necessary to set priorities and act according to available resources and organisational vision. The central threats to sustainability of public health care welfare systems in peripheral hospitals identified, namely the ageing population and rise in chronic diseases. UHC at a meso and micro level, could provide a much better rationale for scholars to evaluate the need for change, and contribute to draft more inclusive sustainable strategies.

A Systems Perspective on the Public Perception of Wind Power in Norway

AbstractThe Sustainable Development Goals, a set of ambitious targets embraced by United Nations member states, are designed to meet global challenges head‐on while shaping a sustainable future. Of these, Goal 7, in particular, focuses on the critical need for affordable, reliable, sustainable, and modern energy for all. Wind energy holds a significant potential in fulfilling Goal 7 of the sustainable development goals. In Norway, there exists a unique scenario, where nearly 98% of electricity is generated from renewable resources. However, without a subsequent increase in power production, a deficit in power is projected by 2027 according to a short‐term market analysis by Statnett. To prevent this, it is imperative to increase the production of electricity from wind. However, in recent years, there has been a significant rise in opposition towards wind power projects in Norway. Some of the wind power projects have even been put on hold because of the increase in protests. In light of this, we apply systems thinking methodologies to improve our understanding of this complex problem. Initially, we identify the stakeholders in our system of interest and categorize them through stakeholder salience analysis framework. Then, we developed a systemigram to graphically represent the system of interest. Finally, we carry out causal loop analysis to find causal loops in our system of interest. Our primary focus with this work is to better understand the factors shaping public perception of wind power projects in Norway. By gaining a deeper understanding about the factors influencing public perception of wind power projects in Norway, we aim to find better solutions to improve the social acceptance of these initiatives in Norway in future works.

Promoting Sustainable Development in Urban–Rural Areas: A New Approach for Evaluating the Policies of Characteristic Towns in China

The Sustainable Development Goals, adopted by all United Nations Member States, emphasize sustainable cities and communities, aiming to strengthen development planning and foster positive links between urban and rural areas by 2030. As the newly leading platform for urbanization development, characteristic towns (‘Tese Xiaozhen’ in Chinese) contribute to the target of sustainable urbanisation, wherein town policies are especially important for leading the sound development of characteristic towns. However, the effect of these characteristic towns policies remains uncertain. Additionally, most related studies have utilized qualitative methodologies in policy evaluation, which may be inadequate to guide actual practice. Thus, in order to accurately acknowledge the effect of characteristic towns policies, a policy evaluation framework is established in this paper, utilising the multiple streams theory, text mining and the Policy Modelling Consistency Index model (PMC-Index model). Then, taking 225 policy documents promulgated in China from 2015 to 2022 as the research objects, policy evaluation indicators were selected by combining the multiple streams theory to improve the PMC-Index model and a text mining method. Thereafter, an empirical analysis was conducted to evaluate the consistency of 10 characteristic towns policies chosen. The results indicate that the mean value of the PMC indexes of the 10 examined policies is 7.13 in the total of 9 points, which means that the general performance of the characteristic town policies is satisfactory, yet the low scores in terms of effectiveness, content, and guarantee. In the end, some recommendations and suggestions are proposed for clarifying administrative attributes, optimizing the integration of urban and rural resources, and adjusting the policy hierarchy to a bottom-up approach. This study not only provides a policy evaluation framework to comprehensively understand the consistency of global urbanization policies but also offers a beneficial reference for promote urban–rural sustainable development.

Event Ethnography to study the global negotiations on the treaty to end plastic pollution: dataset from the first session of negotiations (INC-1)

AbstractPlastics and their associated chemical pollution have emerged as a global threat. This recognition materialized in March 2022 with the adoption of a groundbreaking mandate among United Nations (UN) Member States, signaling the commencement of negotiations for a comprehensive treaty aimed at ending plastic pollution, encompassing the entire lifecycle. The first session of negotiations convened at the International Negotiating Committee (INC-1) in Punta del Este, Uruguay from November 28th–December 2nd, 2022, from there, four other negotiation sessions have either convened or will, with the expected conclusion in December 2024. The current study introduces a methodology for systematically observing and documenting global agreement-making. It utilizes a dataset from the first session of negotiations to explore the event ethnography (EE) methodology for following Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEA). This paper aims to inspire and guide researchers in employing EE, recognizing its efficacy in navigating the complexities of the extensive Global Plastics Treaty (GPT) negotiations and promoting collaborative efforts for a comprehensive understanding of the process. EE is a method increasingly recognised to study multilateral international negotiations within the science-policy nexus to examine emerging obstacles, trends, power dynamics, and actors (both state and non-state) in action within the negotiations. Finally, a dataset is presented from INC-1 through a practical Excel document; the article then demonstrates one example of how the dataset can be employed to enhance comprehension of the negotiators and observers influencing the GPT negotiations.

Analysis of trends in productivity metrics in assessing land degradation: A case study in the Campania region of southern Italy

Land degradation is a critical issue at a global level and its progressive increasing greatly reduces soil ecosystem services. In this context, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, adopted by all United Nations Member States in 2015, defined the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and indicated some targets of particular interest for a territory to be integrated into short- and medium-term national programs. Target 15.3, which aims to end desertification and restore degraded lands, is currently monitored by indicator 15.3.1, measured as the combination of three sub-indicators (trends in land cover change, land productivity and carbon stocks) as suggested by the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD), the custodian agency for the SDG indicator. In our opinion, this assessment shows some weakness that are generally caused by a lack of information from direct field observations. The greatest limitation regards land productivity dynamics linked to the NDVI trajectory adopted by the UNCCD methodological approach. For this reason, the paper proposes an alternative approach that consists of using annual maximum NDVI value assessments instead of annual mean values for trajectory calculation. To come to these conclusions, the study addresses a reliability assessment by using remote sensing techniques via the Google Earth Engine (GEE) and analysing the NDVI evolution over time at 450 locations spread around the Campania region (southern Italy). To this end, a customised Graphical User Interface (GUI) was built on the GEE platform and a Google Earth time slider tool was applied to visualize land cover changes which occurred at each location over a period of 18 years (2001–2018). The survey was carried out on MODIS and Landsat 7 collections and showed that the new approach had a better performance than the UNCCD approach (90 % vs 62 % of successful reliability tests, up to 96 % considering results from Landsat images). The application of maximum NDVI values to assess productivity dynamics spatially shows, with regard to UNCCD data, more than double the percentages of degraded and stable lands and a drastic reduction in improved areas within the Campania region. Overall, this innovative approach appears to agree more closely with ground truth and the use of finer resolution data is more suitable for investigating land degradation processes within a regional context.

It takes two to tango: the second session of negotiations (INC-2) for a global treaty to end plastic pollution

The United Nations (UN) Intergovernmental Negotiating Committee (INC) has completed its second round of negotiations on a new international legally binding instrument to ‘end plastic pollution’. This paper examines the results of the second session of negotiations, which took place May 29–June 2, 2023, and analyses the trends, barriers, and themes shaping the emerging legally binding instrument. The paper considers the discussion surrounding the Options Paper as presented by the INC Secretariat and United Nations Environmental Program based upon written submissions received by UN member states prior to the second session of negotiations. These include potential elements the future treaty text may include—namely objectives, core obligations, and implementation and monitoring measures. At the second session of negotiations, progress towards consensus on these items was severely lacking. We draw on close observations via event ethnography of participants during the negotiations and document analysis. We conclude by looking towards the third round of negotiations by discussing the ongoing ‘dance’ of sorts as submissions are being asked of member states and like-minded groups to contribute to the zero draft treaty text.

International Law & the Sustainable Development Goals

Law and policy are essential tools to tackle ongoing and emerging environmental challenges and are critical to the fulfilment of sustainable development. Adopted by all 193 United Nations (UN) Member States, the 2030 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs, also known as the 2030 Agenda) act as the 21st-century framework for sustainable development. This doctoral project seeks to investigate the interactive dynamics between international law and the SDGs to discern the potential of this relationship to strengthen, reinforce, and facilitate the realisation of existing and emerging obligations in international law.

The Role of Small United Nations Member States

This article outlines the situation of small member states of the United Nations which make up the majority of the membership. It shows that smallness is far from insignificance. Small UN members are active, diligent, and necessary partners for significant member states in the endeavor to get resolutions through in the General Assembly. They work in close collaboration with and assist one another, share insightful knowledge and through networking can cover the entire field of activities of the United Nations. Yet being short staffed, getting through valuable information of a heavy-written nature issued by the UN to do their job presents a challenge.

Analyzing Nigeria’s Journey Towards Sustainable Development Goals: A Comprehensive Review From Inception to Present

RATIONALE: This study critically examines Nigeria's journey towards the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) since their inception. Nigeria, a United Nations member state and a major oil producer, faces challenges like socio-economic disparities, political instability, corruption, and prevalent poverty, despite its cultural richness and natural resources. OBJECTIVES: The primary aim is to evaluate Nigeria's alignment with the SDGs within its national development frameworks, highlighting the significance of these goals in addressing the country's multifaceted developmental challenges. These challenges span various sectors including poverty, health, education, and environmental sustainability. METHODS: The study conducts a detailed analysis of Nigeria's background, including its cultural diversity and developmental hurdles. It reviews national policies and initiatives, notably the Economic Recovery and Growth Plan (ERGP), and the role of the Ministry of Budget and National Planning in coordinating SDG efforts. RESULTS: Findings suggest partial progress in SDG integration within Nigeria’s development plans. While some strides have been made in areas like policy alignment and strategic planning, challenges persist in effective implementation and tackling systemic issues like inequality and corruption. CONCLUSION: The analysis reveals that, while Nigeria has made efforts to incorporate the SDGs into national policies, significant gaps remain in addressing key challenges. The complexity of Nigeria's socio-economic and political landscape presents both hurdles and opportunities for sustainable development. RECOMMENDATIONS: The study advocates for more robust policy implementation, enhanced stakeholder engagement, and targeted strategies to overcome specific challenges. By addressing these areas, Nigeria can accelerate its progress towards the SDGs, paving the way for comprehensive and sustainable national development.

Circular economy, turning decay into magic: heparin extraction from pig viscera

The transformation of industrial waste into valuable resources is an increasingly important concept. At Taiwanâ–™s National Cheng Kung University a multi-disciplinary team has been working towards the 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) adopted by the United Nations member states in 2015 and has developed a method of extracting a valuable medical drug called heparin from agricultural waste. The researchers have combined the advantages of chemical engineering and biotechnology to effectively improve the extraction efficiency and purity of heparin and protected it with technology patents. This exciting innovation could solve the problem of waste disposal from pork production while creating a high-medical value resource from that waste and the residue of the production process could be transformed into fertiliser and animal feed. As such, the researchers believe the application of this technology will help improve the economic productivity of pig farmers and promote environmentally sustainable farming. The value of Chiangâ–™s research are the anticoagulant benefits heparin offers to patients, and also providing new techniques that offer a sustainable and stable supply of the drug. He and the team have taken an innovative approach to extracting heparin sodium, which is the heparin precursor, from pig viscera waste by using dual hydrogen peroxide oxidation methodology and microbial monitoring to enhance the purity of the extracted heparin sodium, creating a higher-quality product for medical applications.