Unit Production Cost Research Articles

Biogas driven multigeneration integrated with simultaneous charging-discharging type thermal energy storage system

This work presents a novel and sustainable solution based on combined heat and power (CHP) system integrated with a simultaneous charging-discharging type thermal energy storage tank. The multi-generation system uses biogas as the heat source and is analyzed from the thermodynamic, exergoeconomic, and environmental perspectives. The proposed configuration aims to meet the electrical requirements of a cluster of 20 villages, greenhouse heating, and hot air production for agricultural drying applications. The exhaust gases from the biogas fired turbine are utilized to power a recompression supercritical CO2 and steam Rankine cycle. The additional surplus heat is stored inside a simultaneous charging/discharging type thermal storage tank that provides favorable conditions (50–55 °C) for biogas producing microorganisms to maximizing gas production. The meso-erythritol (sugar alcohol) is used as a phase change material due to its high latent heat and large supercooling (>60 °C), suitable for the present applications. The PCM is characterized on heat flux Differential scanning calorimeter (DSC) and thermophysical properties are evaluated. Further, the exergoeconomic analysis is presented to examine the economic viability of the system which serves as a holistic solution for rural power generation. It is found that the total product unit cost of the system is 12.96 $/GJ and operating charges are 140.5 $/h. The proposed multigenerational system promises a Levelized cost of electricity at 5 ¢ /kWh. The net overall electricity generated by the system is 1432 kW and provides 200 kW of space thermal heating. In addition, hot air is produced at the rate of 9720 kg/h for different agricultural drying applications.

Comparative analysis of the impact of energy security on productivity of SMEs in the Accra Metropolis of Ghana

ABSTRACT The study explored the link between Energy Security (ES) and the productivity of SMEs in the Greater Accra Region of Ghana. The study assessed the perceptions of 246 respondents from 500 SMEs. Means, Relative Importance Index (RII) and P-values were calculated for availability, affordability, efficiency, and environmental stewardship indicators and used to assess the association between ES and the productivity of SMEs. ES at the SMEs is highest for affordability, followed by environmental stewardship, efficiency, and availability. ES has a significant positive correlation with sales revenue, output per unit cost of production, labour utilization, and capital utilization of SMEs.

Techno-economic analysis of sawdust and rice husk co-pyrolysis for bio-oil production

A techno-economic analysis of bio-oil production from co-pyrolysis of sawdust and rice husk blend was performed to assess the feasibility of scaling up the plant capacities. The analysis was conducted at plant capacities of 0.1 kg/h, 100 kg/h and 1000 kg/h in USD currency. Technology evaluation was based on an optimum bio-oil yield of 51.9 % and a blending ratio of sawdust to rice husk 50:50 using a fluidized bed reactor. Sensitivity analysis showed that operating labour costs, nitrogen costs and feedstock costs have a significant impact on the unit production cost of bio-oil. A plant capacity of 1000 kg/h appears to be more economical for bio-oil production at a nominal unit production cost of 0.052 USD/kg.

Techno-Economic Evaluation of a Skimmed Milk Powder Production Process

Milk powder is a highly demanded food that is used in various ways, both in the industrial area and in everyday life. In the present work, an innovative and unprecedented techno-economic evaluation of a technological proposal for a skimmed milk powder production plant with an annual capacity of 700 tons was carried out through the use of the SuperPro Designer® simulator, in order to know its main economic and profitability indicators under the current economic conditions in Cuba. For economic performance evaluation, the total capital investment, unit production cost, internal rate of return (IRR), net present value (NPV) and project payback time (PT) among other indicators, were determined. A sensitivity study was also accomplished, to determine from what value of the fluid milk unit cost the proposed skimmed milk powder plant begins to be unprofitable. A total capital investment of USD 22 744 000, an annual operating cost of USD 9 884 000, a working capital of USD 647 000 and a unit production cost of USD 352.95 per 25 kg bag were obtained. From the techno-economic results obtained, it can be concluded that the evaluated skimmed milk powder production plant is profitable and feasible due to the values of NPV (USD 14 475 000), IRR (18.98 %) and PT (4.46 years) obtained. The proposed production plant becomes unprofitable from a value of the fluid milk unit cost of USD 1.32/L.

Integrated Kalina cycle in a combined polymer membrane fuel cell and evacuated heat pipe collector for a new power generation system

This paper presents the integration of the Kalina cycle process in a combined polymer membrane fuel cell and evacuated heat pipe collector for improvement of power generation efficiency. The proposed system is evaluated from thermodynamic, environmental, and exergoeconomic perspectives, and the effect of key system parameters are investigated. The energy and exergy efficiencies of the proposed system in the given conditions are improved by 13.12% and 10.35%, respectively compared to an independent fuel cell. The system’s product unit cost of the system and output power in this condition are 136.1 $/GJ and 145.1 kW. The system also prevents the production of 116.1 kg/hr of carbon dioxide under these conditions. The analysis of system parameters shows a direct relationship between increased current density, temperature, and operating pressure of the fuel cell and decreased energy and exergy efficiencies. On the other hand, the total product unit cost increases as these parameters increase. The system assessment shows there is a suitable turbine inlet pressure to achieve optimal efficiency, the lowest unit price for the product, and maximum CO2 emission reduction. Although solar collectors reduce the system’s energy efficiency, they increase the exergy efficiency and reduce the cost per unit of the total product.

Enzymatic cell disruption followed by application of imposed potential for enhanced lipid extraction from wet algal biomass employing photosynthetic microbial fuel cell

Solvent-free algal cell lysis using fungal enzyme for enhanced lipid recovery diminishes per unit production cost of algal biodiesel. In this investigation, a triple chamber photosynthetic microbial fuel cell (PMFC) was fabricated, where positive potential was imposed in the extraction chamber to draw the negatively charged lipid ions from the cathodic chamber. Under optimum imposed potential of + 3.0 V (vs standard hydrogen electrode) and with 3.5% (v/v) dosage of fungal enzyme in to the algal consortium of cathodic chamber, a maximum of 79.0% of lipid was recovered. Additionally, enzyme-assisted de-oiled algal biomass was applied in the anodic chamber to function as substrate and mediator for exo-electrogens, and the maximum power density of 10.0 W/m3 with 82.4% removal of chemical oxygen demand was achieved while treating synthetic wastewater. Therefore, this cost-effective exploration demonstrated successful bioelectricity production and concomitant wastewater treatment with solvent-free direct lipid recovery from wet algal biomass through PMFC.

Waste heat recovery of two solar-driven supercritical CO2 Brayton cycles: Exergoeconomic analysis, comparative study, and monthly performance

The waste heat from a supercritical Brayton cycle has a great potential to be recovered. However, there is a lack of research regarding the utilization of these cycles in multi-generation systems. In addition, different multi-generation systems based on supercritical Brayton cycles have not been compared in the literature. In the present study, two multi-generation configurations based on two supercritical Brayton cycles, namely regenerative (configuration 1) and recompression (configuration 2), are proposed and compared from thermodynamic and exergoeconomic standpoints. In both configurations, an organic Rankine cycle, a domestic hot water heat exchanger, and an LiCl-H2O absorption refrigeration system are employed to convert the waste heat of the two supercritical Brayton cycles into useful energy. Meanwhile, a thermoelectric generator is used instead of a condenser for efficient waste energy recovery of the organic Rankine cycle. The generated electricity by the organic Rankine cycle and thermoelectric generator is used to generate hydrogen in a proton exchange membrane electrolyzer. In addition, a direct integration method is employed to integrate the two supercritical Brayton cycles with a solar power tower as the heat source. The final results regarding the net output power, exergy efficiency, and economic performances of the two configurations reveal the superiority of configuration 2 over configuration 1. Net output power and exergy efficiency of configuration 2 are 6.55 MW and 4.06% points higher than configuration 1. Moreover, total cost rate and unit cost of products for configuration 2 are 0.4 $s-1 and 10.03 $GJ-1 lower than configuration 1. On the other hand, cooling, heating, and hydrogen rates of configuration 1 are respectively 2.93 MW, 4.23 MW, and 2.84 kgh-1 higher than configuration 2. Moreover, the monthly analysis of the two systems for Dhahran city (26.3°N/50.2°E) as a case study indicates that the best thermodynamic performance of the systems is achievable in February, June, and July.

Performance Analysis and Optimization of a Novel Combined Cooling, Heating, and Power System‐Integrated Rankine Cycle and Brayton Cycle Utilizing the Liquified Natural Gas Cold Energy

For realizing efficient utilization of liquified natural gas cold energy and high‐temperature flue gas waste heat, herein, a combined cooling, heating, and power system using Peng–Robinson property package in Aspen HYSYS software, which includes a three‐stage parallel Rankine cycle (RC) in series with single‐stage RC and a supercritical CO2 (S‐CO2) Brayton cycle, is proposed. The system performance is evaluated using the first law of thermodynamics, second law of thermodynamics, specific energy costing method, and exergoenvironment analysis method. The influences of the pump 1 outlet pressure, turbine 3 inlet temperature, working fluid R23 mass flow rate, compressor 1 outlet pressure, CO2 liquefaction pressure, and ambient temperature on system performance are investigated. The nondominated sorting whale optimization algorithm and technique for order preference by similarity to ideal situation are applied to optimize the multiobjective system performance, and the payback periods of system before and after optimization are calculated. The analysis indicates that under the initial conditions, the thermal efficiency, exergy efficiency, total product unit cost, and sustainability index of the system are 41.68%, 48.50%, 112.293 $ GJ−1, and 1.75, respectively. After optimization, exergy efficiency increases by 2.4% and exergoeconomy decreases by 8.277 $ GJ−1.

Performance assessment and comparative study on novel carbon dioxide based power cycles for the cascade engine waste heat recovery

• Two novel CO 2 based power cycles for waste heat recovery are proposed. • Thermodynamic and exergoeconomic models are established for these systems. • Comparative studies and optimizations for these thermal systems are performed. • The novel systems show the better overall performance in exhaust heat extraction. Exploiting waste heat from engine could greatly alleviate current severe energy and environmental situation. Carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) based power cycle is considered as a type of competitive and promising energy utilization system for engine waste heat recovery (WHR) due to its high efficiency, compact design and environmentally friendly property. However, a large space is left for CO 2 -based power cycle to improve the thermodynamic and economic performance. To more efficiently and thoroughly utilizing engine waste heat, two novel CO 2 -based power cycles are proposed. Mathematical models are developed based on the software MATLAB to conduct quantitative thermodynamic and exergoeconomic analysis, parametric analysis, system optimization, and exergy analysis on the proposed systems and two traditional systems. The results show that the first proposed system can enhance net power output by 57.95% and 4.31% and meanwhile reduce total product unit cost by 14.96% and 20.74%, respectively, compared with two traditional systems. As well, the improvement of 61.61% and 6.73% for net power output and 4.11% and 10.62% for total product unit cost can be achieved by the second proposed system. Exergy analysis indicates that the cooler and low-temperature waste heat exchanger have the first and second highest exergy destructions for two proposed systems.

Off‐design performance of supercritical carbon dioxide cycle combined with organic Rankine cycle for maritime nuclear propulsion system under different control strategies

A combined power conversion system, which consists of a supercritical carbon dioxide recompression cycle with an organic Rankine cycle as the bottoming cycle, has broad potential for maritime propulsion applications. However, the performance of the combined system under the off-design condition and operating states of compressors with a wide range of load variations and different control strategies have not been comprehensively investigated. Therefore, a simulation model for the combined system under off-design conditions is established in the present study to investigate the compressors operating states and the performance of the system under different control strategies. The result shows that a peak efficiency of 42.82% and total production unit cost of 11.6 $/GJ are achieved at the design point for the combined system, where the pressure ratio, flow split ratio, and evaporating pressure are 2.7, 0.27, and 770 kPa, respectively. When the relative load varies from 100% to 10%, the efficiency of the inventory-controlled system decreases by 19.07%, and the efficiency of the bypass-controlled system decreases by 34.3%. For the 10% load scenario, the compressors tend to surge under the inventory-controlled strategy and approach the choke area under the bypass-controlled strategy. The adoption of the inventory-bypass hybrid control strategy keeps the compressors of the low-load system away from the surge and choke areas, and the efficiency is between those of the systems controlled by the two separate strategies.

Thermoeconomic assessment of a renewable hybrid RO/PEM electrolyzer integrated with Kalina cycle and solar dryer unit using response surface methodology (RSM)

In this research, a non-dimension model of renewable generation system encompassing a solar-geothermal driven Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) electrolyzer in integration with Kalina cycle (KC), Single-effect Absorption Refrigeration Cycle (SEAC), and Reverse Osmosis (RO) unit is introduced. Cooling and heating loads, electricity, distilled water, Hydrogen, Oxygen, and dry air are the main products of the mentioned system. This scheme is investigated from the energetic, exergetic, and exergoeconomic (3E) standpoints by writing a code in engineering equation solver (EES) and is totally validated by the literature survey. Subsequently, to enhance the operating condition of the CCHP system devised, six decision variables are designated for the optimization procedure using the RSM via the Minitab software; the response variables are sum unit cost of products (SUCP) and exergetic efficiency. Here, the desirability of the accuracy of the regression models attained from the analysis of variance for the objective functions is entirely verified. Moreover, the optimal condition reveals the best exergetic efficiency and SUCP of 31.71% and 1.75 $/GJ, respectively.

Thermoeconomic analysis of two solid oxide fuel cell based cogeneration plants integrated with simple or modified supercritical CO2 Brayton cycles: A comparative study

Two supercritical CO2 (sCO2) Brayton cycles for waste heat recovery in a solid oxide fuel cell (SOFC)-based plant are assessed and compared from thermodynamic and economic perspectives. One cycle considered is a simple sCO2 cycle with recuperation, while the other is the supercritical recompression CO2 (srCO2) cycle. To provide a fair comparison between the performances of the SOFC-sCO2 integrated plants, the flue gas is considered to exit at the same temperature in both cases, through a heating unit to generate hot air.The findings indicate that designing an efficient SOFC-sCO2 integrated plant for cogenerating electricity and a by-product, e.g., heat, is not solely a question of selecting the most efficient sCO2 layout as the bottoming power cycle. Rather, it is a tradeoff between the exergetic performance of the sCO2 layout and its potential to absorb heat from upper SOFC system. It is shown that, at the optimized condition, the capability of a simple sCO2 cycle for recovering heat from the SOFC is 30.86% higher than a srCO2 layout. However, the exergy efficiency of the SOFC-srCO2 integrated cogeneration plant is 0.64% higher than that of the SOFC-sCO2, with a corresponding increase in the average unit cost of products of 3.06%.

Integrated Process for Producing Glycolic Acid from Carbon Dioxide Capture Coupling Green Hydrogen

A novel process path is proposed to produce glycolic acid (GA) from CO2 as the feedstock, including CO2 capture, power-to-hydrogen, CO2 hydrogenation to methanol, methanol oxidation to formaldehyde, and formaldehyde carbonylation units. The bottlenecks are discussed from the perspectives of carbon utilization, CO2 emissions, total site energy integration, and techno-economic analysis. The carbon utilization ratio of the process is 82.5%, and the CO2 capture unit has the largest percentage of discharge in carbon utilization. Among the indirect emissions of each unit, the CO2 hydrogenation to methanol has the largest proportion of indirect carbon emissions, followed by the formaldehyde carbonylation to glycolic acid and the CO2 capture. After total site energy integration, the utility consumption is 1102.89 MW for cold utility, 409.67 MW for heat utility, and 45.98 MW for power. The CO2 hydrogenation to methanol makes the largest contribution to utility consumption due to the multi-stage compression of raw hydrogen and the distillation of crude methanol. The unit production cost is 834.75 $/t-GA; CO2 hydrogenation to methanol accounts for the largest proportion, at 70.8% of the total production cost. The total production cost of the unit depends on the price of hydrogen due to the currently high renewable energy cost. This study focuses on the capture and conversion of CO2 emitted from coal-fired power plants, which provides a path to a feasible low-carbon and clean use of CO2 resources.

Optimized rotary hearth furnace utilization with blast furnace and electric arc furnace: Techno-economics, CO2 reduction

Two strategies to use a rotary hearth furnace (RHF) are discussed from the perspectives of techno-economics and CO2 reduction. One is to use the RHF to produce low-reduced iron (LRI), which is then used in a blast furnace (BF); the other is to use the RHF to produce direct reduced iron (DRI) and use it in an electric arc furnace (EAF). Using a phenomenological model of the furnaces, we compared the mass and energy balances of the two strategies and estimated the unit production cost of the products. The main result is that integration of the RHF with the BF (193 US$ t−1 manufacturing cost; 0.75 tCO2-eq t−1 carbon emission) was more beneficial than with the EAF (656 US$ t−1; 2.62 tCO2-eq t−1). The key difference was the productivity because the two utilization routes require different operating times to reach a specified metallization degree. To optimize the operation of the RHF process, dual objectives of minimizing cost and minimizing CO2 emission were simulated. The Pareto front showed that the emission was reduced by 30% by increasing the cost by 35%.

Techno-economic analysis of Cellulase Production by Trichoderma reesei in Submerged Fermentation Processes using a Process Simulator

Enzymes are valuable in many biofuels production processes, and their wide application has generated significant market demand in recent years. To develop lignocellulosic fuels in a biorefinery, high cost and low catalytic efficiency of cellulase are a major obstacle in the industrial use of this enzyme. A techno-economic assessment of cellulase production by Trichoderma reesei in submerged fermentation (SmF) processes was carried out in this study. SuperPro Designer Software was used to develop a process model that estimated the economic analysis of the fermentation processes by creating alternative schemes (batch and fed-batch) to improve the process. Sensitivity analysis study was carried out using Monte Carlo Software. Economic profitability indicators were used to assess cellulase yield, productivity, aeration rate, and specific power input on the unit production cost (UPC) of cellulase enzyme. Results show that the batch process had a higher aeration requirement when compared to the fed-batch process. Fed-batch process route had a shorter payback time (1.88 years), higher internal rate of return IRR (36.95%), and a more positive Net present value ($140,328,000) than the batch process. In addition, the Fed-batch process route is more economically viable than the batch process route, since the certainty of achieving its base case value of UPC is at the optimum. This study has been able to design a process route that reduces the production cost of cellulase, while increasing its availability in the market for sustainable fuel production in a biorefinery.

Retracted: A comparative thermodynamic and exergoeconomic scrutiny of four geothermal systems with various configurations of TEG and HDH unit implementations

Among the most prominent renewable energy sources worldwide, geothermal heat is plentiful in almost every location containing subterranean geofluid, primarily water. Additionally, given the excessive consumption of water in various manners globally, serious focus has been driven towards means of compensation for freshwater resources. The present study proposes four systems powered by geothermal sources, thereby introduced as geothermal systems. System D, comprised of a double-flash geothermal system, a humidification dehumidification desalination system, and two thermoelectric generators, demonstrated the most promising results among all systems after being analyzed thermodynamically and exergoeconomically, all of which performed using EES software. The evaluated parameters are sum unit cost of products, net generated power output, energetic and exergetic efficiencies, which yielded 4.532$/GJ, 106.8 kW, 45.83 %, and 51.53 %, respectively. In order to generate overplus power and further exploit waste heat, thermoelectric generators were implemented in the systems as substitutions for the condensers. The findings suggested an extra sum of 10.112 kW generated power and exergetic improvement by 1.15 % taking event in system D due to the application of two thermoelectric generators. Moreover, optimization scenarios were run to maximize energetic and exergetic performances and minimize the sum unit cost of products. Three weight coefficients were assumed for each of the target parameters within the single-objective optimization scenarios, namely the thermal efficiency mode, exergy efficiency mode, and economic mode. Moreover, a multi-objective optimization mode was carried out. The optimal results are addressed further along the paper. The present study aims at proposing an optimal system respondent to two of contemporary society’s fundamental requisites, power and freshwater, and in order to do so, an evolutional sequence has been undertaken to satisfy the stated requirements.

Building sustainable societies through vertical soilless farming: A cost-effectiveness analysis on a small-scale non-greenhouse hydroponic system

• Economic feasibility for a small-scale vertical hydroponic farming system for vegetable production under non-controlled environmental conditions. • Net present value, Internal rate of return, Payback period, Profitability index, scenario, sensitivity and regression analysis of hydroponic farming. • Smart urban farming methods for sustainable societies and cities in low developed countries. • Costs and benefits of vertical soilless farming systems (hydroponics). The growing rate of population and urbanization among African cities versus the reducing arable land has roused curiosity in soilless farming as an urban farming method to enhance food security and urban sustainability. This study investigated the economic viability of producing 60 heads of lettuce using a vertical non-circulating hydroponic system outside the green house as a low cost sustainable urban food production prospect for Africa. This was based on a hydroponic experiment set up in Uganda, East Africa 4 capital budgeting techniques were used for the analysis, that is; Net Present Value (NPV), Profitability index (PI), Internal Rate of Return (IRR) and Non-discounted Pay Back Period (NDPBP). A sensitivity and scenario analysis were adopted for risk analysis while regression analysis was considered for forecasting and modelling purposes. A discount rate of 10% was considered for the analysis based on the loan borrowing rate. The unit production cost equaled to 0.46$/head and sale price was estimated at 0.75/head. Initial costs deemed necessary for annual production were estimated at 171.1$. Results showed the following economic values: NPV (16.37$), IRR (12.57%), PI (1.1) and NDPBP (4,5) for annual crop production of 6 cycles. NPV was sensitive to changes in discount rate and unit price while revenue varied with a change in quantities sold and unit price as per the scenario analysis. A significant negative and positive linear relationship was found between unit price of lettuce versus quantity sold and revenue earned correspondingly. Adoption of vertical hydroponic lettuce production can be considered an equally cost-effective venture with substantial profits cetris paribus with the potential to increase food security and sustainability around urbanities. Further research needs to be done to assess the profitability of producing other vegetables using the same system across various seasons and cities.

Techno-Economic Viability Assessment of a Household Scale Agricultural Residue Composite Briquette Project for Rural Communities in Nigeria

This study evaluated the technical and economic viability of a household scale composite briquette project. The objectives were to assess the quality of briquettes, estimate the cost of production, and determine the feasibility of the project. Briquettes were made from a blend of corncobs and the bark of oil palm trunk using a manual press. Production cost was estimated from the market price of commodities and specific economic indicators were used for feasibility analysis. Sensitivity analysis was performed on some essential input parameters that may affect the profitability of the project. Economic analysis revealed that the unit production cost of the briquettes was USD 0.16 per kg. The net present value was USD 6755.91 from the sale of briquettes at USD 0.26 per kg. An accounting profit is possible once briquette sales are above the break-even point of 7329.8 kg. Households could save about 25% from their per-capita expenditure on fuelwood when briquettes are utilized. Overall, the household briquette project is technically and economically viable in Nigeria. The significance of this study lies in the provision of a piece of baseline information to encourage local bio-energy development and serve as a guide for stakeholders in Nigeria with a potential interest in investing in briquette technology.

Life cycle assessment and cost of a seawater reverse osmosis plant operated with different energy sources

Seawater desalination plants consume significant amounts of energy sourced primarily from fossil fuels, leading to significant environmental impact. Life Cycle Assessment has been applied to desalination systems powered by a single renewable energy source with the underlying assumption of sufficiency of power supply. However, in several locations in the world the intermittent nature of these renewable sources prevents a full reliance on a single source and necessitates a combined fossil fuel-renewable energy mix. This study addresses this issue by performing life cycle assessment and preliminary costing analysis for different renewable-energy-grid combinations (photovoltaic-grid, wind-grid and anaerobic digestion-grid). Whilst the grid-anaerobic digestion and grid-photovoltaic scenarios provided significant improvements in all environmental impact categories, the grid-wind energy option resulted in the highest reduction whereby a 60% decrease in carbon footprint was observed. The unit product cost for the environmentally optimum grid-anaerobic digestion scheme was the lowest at 0.94 $/m3, while the unit product cost for the grid-photovoltaic scheme was the most expensive at 1.47 $/m3. An integrated photovoltaic-wind-anaerobic digestion scheme may offer further reduction in environmental impact and a potentially lower unit product cost.

Plant tissue culture challenges in Ethiopia and alternative options for low-cost media.

Plant tissue culture (PTC) is the cultivation of any part of a plant in nutritionally defined media under an aseptic and controlled environment, regardless of season and weather. The application of PTC leads to the mass propagation of varietal, high-quality seedlings of ornamental plants, medicinal plants, plantation crops, fruit trees, and forest trees. PTC technology, on the other hand, is more expensive in developing nations, such as Ethiopia, than traditional propagation methods such as seeds, cuttings, grafting, and so on. As a result, it is critical to take steps to cut production costs and explore alternate choices for present PTC obstacles (budget restrictions, procedural and operational matters, and unfortunate interactions and partnerships). In order to lower the unit cost of crop production, cost-effective procedures and the optimal utilization of equipment are required. This can be accomplished by increasing the efficiency of processes and optimizing resource allocation. Gelling agents, macro and micronutrients, equipment, carbon sources, and the utilization of bioreactors, which can minimize space, energy, and labor needs, can all be replaced to lower production costs. Therefore, these alternative options are recommended as a workaround to the problems and are briefly described in this document.