Union States Research Articles

Women in the ICT Sector in European Union States: Facing Gender Inequalities

This paper aims to investigate the patterns of gender inequalities in the Information and Communication (ICT) sector in European Union (EU) countries. Based on secondary data from Eurostat, a cluster analysis has been conducted to identify clusters of EU countries with various patterns of dependencies among the gender pay gap, female entrepreneurship, and employment in the ICT sector. Three clusters of EU countries have been identified with different patterns of the situation as regards women in this sector. In countries belonging to the first cluster, a higher level of gender pay gap coexists with the lowest share of female participation in the ICT sector and features the choice of entrepreneurship rather than employment. In countries of the second cluster, the lowest gender pay gap is observed together with an increase in female employment in the ICT sector as compared to the countries in the first cluster, and a higher share of employed women than entrepreneurs. In the countries of the third cluster, the moderate gender pay gap found therein is associated with the highest share of female ICT entrepreneurs, and is higher than the share of employed professionals. The discovery of the various patterns of the co-existence of the gender pay gap and women’s participation in the ICT sector reveal that the pay gap is rather the factor preventing women from entering this sector, as there is limited potential to push them towards entrepreneurship instead of paid employment. The authors’ results contribute to the theory of entrepreneurship and gender studies by investigating gender gaps in entrepreneurship and wages in the ICT sector as a primary sector.

End-of-life solar photovoltaic waste management: A comparison as per European Union and United States regulatory approaches

The increasing growth of solar photovoltaic (PV) deployment raises end-of-life management concerns. Previous studies have forecasted PV waste; however, the implications of the regulations were not assessed. The present study estimates the volume and composition of end-of-life solar PV waste for the European Union and the United States. The recycling potential of generated waste and the fate of materials in end-of-life PV waste as per the present regulations is also estimated. Further, the work analyses solar manufacturers contributing to the waste and provides recommendations for improving solar PV waste management. The analysis in the present study shows that 24.93 million tonnes and 36.23 million tonnes (metric ton) of PV waste with an economic value of 189 billion USD and 262 billion USD are expected to be generated between 2025 and 2050 in the US and European Union, respectively. This work also indicates that the US lacks federal PV waste-specific management regulations and has different requirements across the states. In contrast, European countries have adopted the Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment Directive in their national legislations in addition to country-specific PV manufacturer compliance schemes. Due to the lack of regulations, 20 MT of PV waste is expected to be disposed of in landfills in the US. Chinese manufacturers like Tongwei, Aiko, and LONGi are leading manufacturers of PV shipments globally. They could play a significant role in PV recycling and management if they adopt take-back programs and invest in recycling, contributing to future end-of-life PV waste management. In light of these observations, a need for greater synchronization between federal and state-level end-of-life PV regulations, collaboration among recyclers and PV industry stakeholders, and continued research and knowledge sharing is recommended. Secondly, incorporating emerging contaminants in PV waste regulations and waste characterization methods is required for responsible recycling and safe management.

The Citizenship of the Union and Member State Nationality. A Negative Approximation

The Citizenship of the Union and Member State Nationality. A Negative Approximation

Technological sovereignty: areas of the Union State agro-industrial complex development

The regulatory legal acts of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus regulating the technological independence of the agro-industrial complex are considered, and conceptual directions for ensuring the technological sovereignty of the agro-industrial complex of the Union State are determined.

Translating the regulatory landscape of medical devices to create fit-for-purpose artificial intelligence (AI) cytometry solutions.

The implementation of medical software and artificial intelligence (AI) algorithms into routine clinical cytometry diagnostic practice requires a thorough understanding of regulatory requirements and challenges throughout the cytometry software product lifecycle. To provide cytometry software developers, computational scientists, researchers, industry professionals, and diagnostic physicians/pathologists with an introduction to European Union (EU) and United States (US) regulatory frameworks. Informed by community feedback and needs assessment established during two international cytometry workshops, this article provides an overview of regulatory landscapes as they pertain to the application of AI, AI-enabled medical devices, and Software as a Medical Device in diagnostic flow cytometry. Evolving regulatory frameworks are discussed, and specific examples regarding cytometry instruments, analysis software and clinical flow cytometry in-vitro diagnostic assays are provided. An important consideration for cytometry software development is the modular approach. As such, modules can be segregated and treated as independent components based on the medical purpose and risk and become subjected to a range of context-dependent compliance and regulatory requirements throughout their life cycle. Knowledge of regulatory and compliance requirements enhances the communication and collaboration between developers, researchers, end-users and regulators. This connection is essential to translate scientific innovation into diagnostic practice and to continue to shape the development and revision of new policies, standards, and approaches.

End co-formulant secrecy

Pesticides, widely used in modern agriculture, are applied in formulations that contain the main ingredient (active ingredient) and additional chemicals like solvents and surfactants (co-formulants). Both active ingredients and co-formulants can cause human and environmental toxicity. However, under European Union and United States law, the full details of the co-formulant composition are kept secret from the public and researchers. Only the producer and regulators know the full details. Here I argue that legislators should end ‘co-formulant secrecy’ and require all the ingredients in a pesticide be listed openly, including their concentrations. To this end I draw parallels between the legislation for pesticides with that of medicines, review the counterarguments, and discuss the impacts on research and regulation. Co-formulants can be toxicologically relevant, and some are even more toxic than the active ingredient in the formulation. Pesticide users, consumers and scientists deserve to have transparency in understanding what co-formulants are included in pesticide formulations. The stated rationale for secrecy is to protect innovation and reward companies for undertaking expensive research and development. However, secrecy is ineffective at protecting innovation, as it is possible to reverse engineer a formulation’s composition. Further, patents are already utilised, so secrecy adds no additional benefit to industry. I argue that co-formulant secrecy only serves to stifle and limit the ability of independent scientists to conduct research.

The Role of Museums for the Issue of Tourism Development

Tourism is an integral part of the life of our planet. This complex, highly profitable intersectoral complex is one of the main areas of the global economy, which contributes to a high level of employment, social welfare and quality of life, as well as economic unity and cultural diversity of states and regions of the world.
 One of the ways of spiritual development of society is cultural tourism, in the development of which museums have an important place. It should be noted that significant investments have been made in the development and construction of museums. This seemingly conservative and quiet institution, like a large modern corporation, integrates with amazing speed into the processes of modern globalization, receives an unlimited number of visitors. It is aimed at attracting both local and foreign tourists.

The Effects of Externalised Border Control Management by Germany on Marriage Migrants from Third Countries

ABSTRACT Since European Union states began externalising their migration control regime, by delegating to third states, their own remote institutions and non-state actors, scholars have widened the ‘destination state-centric’ perspective of Zolberg’s influential ‘remote control’ interpretative framework. Border externalisation is, therefore, regarded as a complex ‘battlefield, in which different actors are positioning themselves’ and which produces multifaceted transnational effects. Based on autoethnography and semi-structured interviews with spouses from several post-Soviet states who are married to German citizens, this paper illuminates how tightening border policies and vigilant practices at German consulates directed at marriage migrants from third countries influence households and couples’ life trajectories. The reverberations encompass the evolving nature of transnational borderscapes in response to state policies, as well as changing conditions of marriage, family planning, the maintenance of two households and (re)negotiation of gender roles.

Public legal means of protecting national interests in the field of foreign investment: the modern experience of Russia and the Republic of Belarus.

The subject of the research in this article is the experience of Russia and the Union State of the Republic of Belarus in protecting national interests in the field of foreign investment in terms of the use of public legal means of state regulation. The object of the study is regulatory documents, recommendations and other documents regulating the protection of national interests in the implementation of foreign investments in Russia and in the Republic of Belarus, existing national strategies and regulatory approaches. In the course of the study, the author used the method of system analysis, priority was given to special legal methods of cognition, among which methods of comparative legal analysis, theoretical and legal modeling should be highlighted. The author considers ways to overcome the sanctions pressure from unfriendly states, compares the legal restrictions imposed by the Union states and identifies their differences. The article provides a comparative analysis of the current approaches of the Republic of Belarus and Russia on the issues of ensuring the security of foreign investment, taking into account the transformation of the economies of states based primarily on domestic sources of investment financing.The author comes to the conclusion that the means of protecting public interests in the Republic of Belarus have proved effective in practice and can be recommended for use also in the Russian legal field. At the same time, the Russian financial market continues to adhere to the principle of openness and accessibility to foreign investors, but at present these principles are implemented only to the extent that does not contradict the maintenance of national financial sovereignty and are focused on friendly jurisdictions. And the creation of incentive measures to attract them is a new task in the development of legislation both in Russia and in the Republic of Belarus.

The European Arrest Warrant - Optional Reasons for Refusing its Execution. Case Law Aspects

This paper aims to bring to attention certain optional reasons for refusing the execution of a European arrest warrant, situations in which the courts can defeat the principle of mutual recognition and trust between the judicial authorities of the European Union states, which represents the “cornerstone” of judicial cooperation in criminal matters. The judicial enforcement authorities cannot refuse to execute a European arrest warrant except for reasons resulting from the Council Framework Decision No. 2002/584/JAI of 13 June 2002, however, in practice, the optional reasons for non-execution often raised problems, the wording of article 4 and article 4a leaving a margin in the judgment of the courts.

Belarusian Regime Perceptions of Russian Aggression in Ukraine

Abstract This article examines how Belarusian officials reacted to Russia’s aggression against Ukraine after its outbreak in February 2022 to March 2023. Although the Belarusian president initially tried to maintain friendly relations with Kyiv, he later chose to support his Russian counterpart, Vladimir Putin, and the invasion of Ukraine. In other words, this paper argues that Aliaksandr Lukašenka’s decision to support pro-Russian narratives about Moscow’s war of aggression against Ukraine was taken as a result of the pressure that Vladimir Putin exerted on him, as well as the awareness that Russia alone guarantees his political survival. However, during their interactions throughout 2022 and 2023, the Belarusian president made efforts to avoid ‘entrapment’—that is, being dragged into the conflict through the commitments he assumed within the Union State—to demonstrate to the entire international community that he still maintains some room of maneuver in his relationship with Russia.

Former Soviet Union middle class: how entrepreneurs are shaping a new stratum and pattern of socio-economic behavior

The purpose of this study is to create a representative socio-economic profile of entrepreneurs operating in the former Soviet Union (FSU) states as a pillar of the new middle-class stratum. This study explored middle-class entrepreneurship from multiple perspectives, encompassing statistical analysis of microdata about households and firms. The aim was to gauge entrepreneurship within a national framework and examine its associations with social and economic factors. The study adopted the Doing Business tool as a novel paradigm to establish a quantitative correlation between the economic system in the post-Soviet space and the investigated variables. The analysis revealed that prospective entrepreneurs are members of the younger generation between the ages of 25 and 34; a critical factor in the development of entrepreneurship is highly educated human capital; and typical representatives of entrepreneurship intending to operate in the FSU states establish their own business as a means of subsistence, not as a means of advancement in the social stratum. In general, an entrepreneur of the middle class in the new economies of the post-Soviet space does not demonstrate a high level of entrepreneurial activity and, as a pillar of the middle-class stratum, is in the formation stage.

Assessing the level of innovativeness and digitalization of enterprises in the European Union States

Innovativeness and digitalization of enterprises of various countries is fundamental to their development and building a competitive knowledge-based economy. These issues are well understood in the European Union (EU), which promotes sustainable development of its economy, for which innovativeness and digitalization are of vital importance. The paper addresses this issue by presenting the results of a study of the level of innovativeness and digitalization of enterprises in the countries of the EU. The objectives of the research were to assess the level of innovativeness and digitalization of enterprises in the EU-27 states and to determine a relationship between digitalization and the level of innovativeness of these enterprises, as well as the impact of selected economic, energy, social and environmental parameters on these processes. The importance and interaction of these areas, as well as their impact on the economy, causes the methodology developed and the research conducted to consider both these dimensions of business activity simultaneously. To achieve these goals, an original research methodology was developed. Its basis was a set of 18 selected indicators characterizing the state of digitalization and innovativeness of enterprises in the EU-27 member states. Three methods of Multiple-criteria decision-making (EDAS, MOORA, VIKOR) and the Hurwicz criterion were used for the primary research. On the other hand, the CRITIC, Entropy and equal weights methods and the Laplace criterion were used to determine the weights of indicators. The multi-criteria approach to the issue under study made it possible to achieve the set objectives and formulate conclusions and answers to the research questions posed. The results unequivocally indicate a link between the innovativeness of enterprises and the process of their digitalization and R&D expenditures in the EU countries. The level of innovativeness and digitalization is definitely higher in the group of the so-called "old EU-14' states than in the "new EU-13" states. The research and its results provide ample opportunities for conclusions as to the state of both studied processes (digitalization and innovativeness) in the enterprises of the EU-27 states. The wide scope of the research carried out makes it possible to use the findings to build strategies and future economic policies of the entire EU and individual countries. The universality of the developed methodology also gives a wide range of possibilities for its application for further research.

Information security in the Union State: the universal legal dimension

The subject of the study forms a set of legal norms of normative legal acts of the Russian Federation, the Republic of Belarus and the interstate association of the Union State of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus, international treaties(agreements) regulating public relations in the field of information security, law enforcement practice, foreign experience of legal regulation, as well as provisions theoretical interdisciplinary research in this field. The object of the study is public relations related to the legal provision of information security in the Union State. The Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus in the context of new challenges and threats, as well as digital transformation and geopolitical changes. The analysis indicates a certain experience of scientific research in this field. At the same time, in the context of significant changes in socio-economic and foreign policy conditions, new challenges and threats, multi-vector scientific research in the information and legal sphere is necessary. The methodological basis of this study is a system of modern general scientific and private law methods. The study of the formation, development, place and role of the legal provision of information security of the Union State of the Russian Federation and the Republic of Belarus was conducted using the following general scientific methods: analysis and synthesis, abstraction and modeling, generalization, description, etc. The main conclusions of this study were the following proposals, it is necessary to develop and approve the conceptual framework for the legal provision of information security for the development of regional interstate cooperation within the framework of the Union State of the Republic of Belarus and the Russian Federation. This is important for solving the tasks of ensuring national and international information security, implementing agreements within the framework of regional interstate associations and further forming a system of universal public law mechanisms for ensuring information security. At the same time, the strategic legal acts of the Union State in the field of information security are dynamic in nature due to changes in social and political relations, including at the international level. There is a growing tendency to perceive the information space not only as an area requiring the use of exclusively protective measures of influence, but also involving active offensive measures to the extent necessary to protect national interests.

Иерархия университетов внутренней периферии в позднесоветский период: на примере азиатской части РСФСР

The building of the hierarchical structure of the Soviet university system was influenced by various factors, particularly during the late Soviet period (from the 1950s to the 1980s), when the final round of Soviet moderni-zation in the economy, social structure, and culture occurred. Factors, such as the multi-structure of the Soviet economic system, uneven socio-economic development of regions (leading to the formation of distinct economic regions and an internal periphery), the complex administrative-territorial structure due to the vast and diverse territority (a union state that included another complex structure – RSFSR), and the colonial nature of the devel-opment of the Asian periphery, all contributed to the development of this hierarchical structure. In this regard, it would be representative to consider the example of the Asian part of the RSFSR, including the sub-regions of the Trans-Urals, Siberia and the Far East, to analyze the processes of building a heterogeneous university system and the features of the university hierarchy on the “inner” periphery of the Soviet university system. This helps understand how research was planned, organized and implemented, as well as how scientific personnel were trained at universities on the “internal” periphery. The author focuses on the agency of various actors, their inter-actions, and mutual influence, which gives an understanding of how the scientific and communication system between the “old” (leading) and “new” universities was built, highlighting the gaps and continuities in this hier-archical system. Based on the results of the study, a three-level hierarchy of Soviet universities was identified, as well as the structure of the internal periphery of the Asian part of the country during the late Soviet period. The author analyzes the system of relationships between universities and identifies both positive and negative factors that affected the development of scientific and organizational ties between these institutions.

Prospects for international cooperation and development of tourism and recreational sphere in the Russian-Belarusian border area

The article examines the key directions for the development of interregional cooperation between the Russian and Belarusian border areas in the field of tourism and recreation. The relevance of this problem is justified by the fact that the intensification of the activities of the Union State can become a driver for the development of the territory under study through interregional cross-border cooperation. The purpose of the article is to assess the prospects for interregional cooperation and development of the tourism and recreational sector of the border region. The scientific novelty of the study lies in the systematization and analysis of current information on the activities of the bodies of the Union State and the projection of its impact on the tourism and recreational sphere of the Russian-Belarusian border area. The author used general scientific, statistical, cartographic methods, analyzed the normative documents of the Union State, statistical data and scientific literature on the topic. In addition, a content analysis of the indicators of collective accommodation facilities in the study area was carried out, which made it possible to identify the most promising tourist centers, as well as the problems of creating a unified classification of hotels in the Union State. The practical significance of the research results lies in the use of the proposed cross-border routes, built taking into account transport, infrastructure and resource aspects. The article also analyzes the main problems hindering the economic and political integration of the two countries, as well as the development of interregional interaction in the field of tourism.

The Union State after the 20th Anniversary

The Union State after the 20th Anniversary

Globalization and Proliferations of Small Arms and Light Weapons in Nigeria: The Productive Precursors to the Security Challenges in North-Eastern Nigeria

The Nigeria North-East geopolitical zone which comprises of Adamawa, Bauchi, Borno, Gombe, Taraba and Yobe States has provided save haven for all forms of insurgents and criminal groups, including Boko Haram, the Islamic States in West African Province (ISWAP), armed banditry, Fulani herdsmen militancy, kidnapping for ransom, cattle rustling and armed robbery. There is also the problem of increased proliferation of Small Arms and Light Weapons (SALW) encouraged by the porous nature of the land borders in northern part of the country, yet, the government seem comatose. It is on this premise that this study asserts that Globalization and proliferation of SALW are precursors for the security challenges in North-East, Nigeria. Descriptive analysis was adopted and qualitative method of data collection was utilized in this study. The study finds out that the adversaries of the Cold War protagonists, the defunct Soviet Union (USSR) and United States of America (USA), advanced the progress of SALW proliferation in Nigeria, which in turn favored the terrorist groups in Northern part of the country. Also, there has been relentless onslaught of criminal activities and other overlapping security challenges since the Cold War era in the country ranging from banditry and kidnapping for ransom, insurgency of Boko Haram and Islamic States in West African Province (ISWAP), armed robbery and ritual killings, among others. The study recommends that the peace process in northern Nigeria should be sustained. There should be better border security policy and local policing of the communities in the Nigeria northeast geopolitical zone.

ESTABLISHING A CENTRALIZED RECRUITMENT COMMISSION FOR ACADEMIC STAFF IN INDIA: A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF CURRENT PRACTICES AND THE NEED FOR STANDARDIZATION

The recruitment of academic staff in India’s higher education sector currently lacks a centralized, standardized approach, leading to significant inconsistencies, transparency issues, and potential biases in the hiring process. While the Union Public Service Commission (UPSC) and State Public Service Commissions (SPSCs) provide a structured and merit-based recruitment model for civil and administrative officers, no such unified mechanism exists for academic staff in Central and State universities and colleges. This research paper explores the shortcomings of the current decentralized recruitment practices, including the subjective nature of direct interviews and the varying interpretations of University Grants Commission (UGC) guidelines, which contribute to disparities in the quality of academic personnel. Utilizing a mixed-method approach, the study combines quantitative data from surveys of 500 respondents (250 males and 250 females) and qualitative insights from in-depth interviews with stakeholders such as university officials and policy experts. The findings reveal significant challenges, including a lack of transparency, susceptibility to favouritism, and inconsistent recruitment standards across institutions. These issues highlight the urgent need for a centralized academic recruitment commission to ensure uniformity, meritocracy, and fairness in the hiring processes. The paper advocates for the establishment of a centralized recruitment body, modeled after the UPSC and SPSCs, to enhance the integrity and quality of academic hiring. Such a system could standardize recruitment criteria, reduce biases, and promote transparency, thereby aligning India’s higher education sector with global best practices and ensuring a high standard of education across all institutions..

Reconciling Environmental VAT Differentiations With EU State Aid Law

Differentiations in value added tax (VAT) rates and VAT exemptions are used to pursue environmental policy goals, among other things. This article analyses the compatibility of such environmental VAT measures with European Union (EU) state aid law. It is found that the criteria for the granting of a fiscal advantage to (certain) undertakings and the liability to (threaten to) distort competition and affect intra-Union trade are typically fulfilled in these situations. Conversely, the qualification of the relevant advantage as ‘state’ aid (as opposed to Union aid) essentially depends on the (voluntary or mandatory) character of the advantage according to the EU VAT Directive. In any case, one could argue that aligning the VAT legal framework with the European Green Deal is now an additional objective of EU VAT law. Such a reading would speak against the selectivity of these environmental measures pursuant to the Court of Justice of the European Union’s (CJEU’s) established three-stage assessment. Value added tax (VAT), rate reductions, rate differentiation, exemptions, state aid, Union aid, selectivity, distortion of competition, environmental policy, European Green Deal.