Surface Temperature Uniformity Research Articles

Research on Temperature Change Law and Non-Uniform Distribution Characteristics of Electromagnetic Control Roll Based on Rotating Heat Flow

The uniform temperature distribution on the surface of the electromagnetic control roll (ECR) has a great impact on the quality of the strip; therefore, temperature control is essential. In order to study this issue, a two-dimensional volume of fluid (VOF) model was established using the simulation software FLUENT (2024 R1) to analyze the radial cooling capacity and surface temperature uniformity of the ECR under different process parameters, and an experimental validation was carried out at the same time. The error between the experiment and the model was less than 5% of the maximum temperature, proving the model is accurate. The results of the analysis show that the use of a controlled temperature mode has an effect on the cooling capacity and the speed has no effect on the cooling capacity. The temperature difference between the two sides of the ECR is too large, which will make the uniformity of the ECR surface temperature worse. While too high or too low, a roll speed and coolant injection speed will increase the non-uniformity of the ECR surface temperature; when the roll speed is 12 rad/s or coolant injection speed is 5 m/s, the ECR surface temperature distribution uniformity is the best. Properly adjusted process parameters can improve the cooling performance and ECR surface temperature uniformity.

Numerical investigation of surface temperature uniformity and cooling performance for ceiling radiant cooling panel with an air layer

The ceiling radiant cooling panel (CRCP) with air layer based on serpentine shaped flow channel was proposed to solve condensation risk, however, the performance of CRCP was weakened owing to the serpentine shaped flow channel with high-pressure drop. Hence, the parallel shaped type CRCP with air layer was proposed in this work. The effects of both structural and operational parameters on surface temperature distribution and the cooling performance were evaluated. Results showed the cooling capacity was increased with the increase of chilled water velocity and tube diameter, while decreased with the increase in the air layer thickness, cooling panel thickness, tube spacing and chilled water temperature. Considering that condensation risk, it is recommended to set tube spacing, tube diameter, air layer thickness and cooling panel thickness above 125 mm, 10 mm, 12 mm and 1.5 mm, respectively. In the structure parameters of the CRCP, the cooling panel thickness exhibits the maximum impact on cooling capacity with relational grade of 0.87, and the air layer thickness has the maximum impact on surface temperature uniformity with relational grade of 0.82. The findings could serve as guideline for better practical applications of parallel shaped type CRCP with an air layer in different scenarios.

Experimental study on the thermal performance of aluminum three-dimensional vapor chamber heat sink with a louvered-fin stacked evaporator wick for data center servers

Under increasing heat loads and stricter energy consumption limits for data center servers, traditional heat sinks are becoming inadequate. In this paper, a novel aluminum three-dimensional vapor chamber heat sink of air cooling is developed, in which the evaporator and condenser are connected internally to form a three-dimensional flow channel for working fluid so that two heat transfer methods, phase change and single-phase, are combined in one device. Furthermore, a novel louvered-fin stacked evaporator wick structure and its fabrication process are proposed, which greatly improve thermal performance and temperature uniformity. Thermal characteristics under different heat loads, fan input power, and tilt angles are studied experimentally. Results show that the heat sink has a maximum heat dissipation capability of more than 450W, at which the maximum evaporator surface temperature is within 75 °C. The fan input power can distinctly improve thermal performance, heat load impacts overall thermal resistance slightly and the minimum is 0.083 °C/W. The tilt angle impacts thermal resistance slightly but significantly affects both the evaporator surface and condenser fin temperature uniformity. Under a tilt angle of 90°, regardless of heat loads, the condenser fin temperature is much lower than other tilt angles.

Vapor-liquid coplanar structure enables high thermal conductive and extremely ultrathin vapor chamber

Ultrathin vapor chambers have great potential in cooling compact and portable electronics due to their unique advantages including adjustable cooling surface and good temperature uniformity. However, minimizing the thickness of the vapor chambers while maintaining high thermal conductivity could be mutually exclusive. Here, we develop an ultrathin vapor chamber that enables thermal conductivity of more than 10000 W/mK at an overall thickness of only 0.27 mm. Our ultrathin vapor chamber employs the vapor-liquid coplanar arrangement structure that minimizes the vapor flow pressure drop, the superhydrophilic hybrid mesh wicks that strengthen the capillary performance, and superhydrophilic orthogonal microgrooves that absorb the condensed liquid film and smooth the vapor channels. The heat transfer capability and thermal resistance are theoretically modelled to better understand the heat transfer mechanism of the ultrathin vapor chamber. The proposed extremely thin vapor chamber shows good superiority and great impetus in the thermal management of practical compact applications. This extremely ultrathin vapor chamber and the experimental results may guide the new directions for minimized thermal control devices.

Dynamic Response of Phase Change Heat Exchange Unit with Layered Porous Media for Pulsed Electronic Equipment

Effective heat dissipation challenges transient high-power electronic devices in hypersonic vehicle cabins. This study introduces a Phase Change Heat Exchange Unit with Layered Porous Media (PCHEU–LPM) employing pulsed heat flow at the top and forced convection at the bottom. The primary aim was a comparative parametric study analyzing the thermal response of the heating surface under pulsed heat flow conditions. The geometric model was generated using electron microscopy images of manufactured objects and the numerical model was established based on the enthalpy–porosity method. Numerical simulations explored amplitude and frequency effects on pulsed thermal excitation, evaluating temperature and phase fields. A comprehensive time-frequency transformation assessed the temperature response. The results indicated an initial decrease and subsequent increase in interface temperature fluctuation with pulse heat flux amplitude growth. Temperature field uniformity correlated with natural convection strength in two-phase and liquid-phase regions. At mid and low frequencies, the phase change process increasingly suppressed interface temperature fluctuations. Optimal pulse thermal excitation selection was crucial for minimizing temperature fluctuations while maintaining the interface temperature within the expected phase transition range. In conclusion, a novel design concept is posited herein, aiming to enhance surface temperature uniformity and broaden the applicability of electronic devices through the manipulation of porosity rates.

Experimental investigation of the intermittent spray heat transfer characteristics of nanofluids in single- and two-phase states

Traditional air-cooled cooling systems used in engineering vehicles consume significant energy and do not align well with future development trends. To address this problem, a single- and two-phase intermittent spray cooling technique for nanofluids was proposed in this study. The effects of the duty cycle and spray frequency on the heat transfer performance and surface temperature uniformity of intermittent spray were determined by experiments, and the thermal behaviour of intermittent spray with different mass fractions of Al2O3 nanofluids was compared in detail. The results revealed that when the spray frequency is constant, the heat transfer coefficient increases with an increase in duty cycle, but the cooling efficiency decreases. The spray frequency mainly affects the average heat transfer surface temperature and its uniformity. At 2.0 Hz, nanofluids with a mass fraction of 0.7 % exhibited the best intermittent spray performance, with an average heat transfer coefficient of 431.8 W/(m2·K). However, a continuous increase in the mass fraction of the nanofluids inhibited the heat transfer performance. The impact of droplets on the heat transfer surface, the liquid film heat transfer process, and the heat transfer characteristics of the nanofluid intermittent spray in the single- and two-phase states were further studied. The results revealed that the heat transfer of intermittent spray mainly depends on the properties and flow rate of the coolant in a single-phase state. Although the heat transfer performance of intermittent spray is evidently enhanced in the two-phase state, it still does not exceed that of continuous spray. These findings highlight the flexibility of nanofluid intermittent spray cooling in enhancing heat transfer control and can inform the development of energy-saving and intelligent cooling systems for engineering vehicles.

Experimental study on ultra-thin silicon-based VC for chip-level heat dissipation

The trend towards miniaturization and integration of integrated circuits has led to the emergence of local hotspots with high heat flux and high temperature frequently. Integrating vapor chamber (VC) directly on the surface of semiconductor electronic devices, can effectively address the problem of overheating on the chip surface, and is therefore considered as a promising thermal management solution. However, the challenge of reducing the size of the VC while improving its heat transfer performance cannot be ignored. To address this, a silicon-based VC with thickness of 0.6 mm is designed and fabricated in this study. Structural optimization is carried out, including the design of three types of wicks using square micropillar arrays and two types of support columns including solid and porous and an experimental system is built to study the influence of these structures on the heat transfer performance of VC. The results indicate that the VC can still function normally under the highest heat flux of 123.6 W/cm2, resulting in lowest thermal resistance of 1.54 °C/W. For wicks, the thermal resistance of VC with characteristic size of 10 μm is reduced compared with that of 20 μm. The introduction of gradient wick, that is, using small-size (10 μm) micropillar arrays in heating area and big-size (20 μm) micropillar arrays in non-heating area, can effectively reduce the thermal resistance of VC. Moreover, the solid support columns are found being advantageous in reducing the thermal resistance of VC, while porous support columns improve the surface temperature uniformity of VC. This work provides a feasible path to optimize silicon-based VC.

A novel microchannel heat sink with staggered inlet and outlet to improve base surface temperature uniformity

Non-uniform temperature distribution can lead to performance degradation and thermal failure of electronic devices. So as to improve the base surface temperature uniformity, we proposed a novel microchannel heat sink with staggered inlet and outlet. This arrangement divides a complete flow channel into three regions, and the flow direction in each channel can be changed to form different flow modes. The effects of flow mode, the inlet and outlet spacing, Reynolds number and channel length on the temperature uniform performance of base heating surface are investigated numerically. It is found that the microchannel heat sink with staggered inlet and outlet has more uniform fluid distribution and can ensure the same highest temperature in each region to improve the base surface temperature uniformity. The optimal spacing between middle inlet and outlet decreases as Reynolds number decreases for optimal flow mode, and the improving effect of temperature uniformity becomes worse with increasing channel length. Within the calculation parameter range, compared with the straight microchannel unit, the base temperature difference and the pumping power of staggered microchannel unit with countercurrent flow in each region are reduced by 77.6% to 81.3% and 56.1% to 68.8%, respectively.

Mechanisms underlying temperature uniformity in electrostatic chucks through experimental and simulation methods

Electrostatic chucks (ESCs) play a crucial role in securing and holding wafers during processing or testing in the semiconductor industry. ESCs are favored for their superior clamping performance, ensuring high-quality and consistent semiconductor products. Nevertheless, the temperature uniformity in ESCs is paramount to achieving these goals. In this study, the surface temperature distribution of a 12-inch four-zone ESC was investigated based on thermodynamics and hydromechanics theories. A numerical model has been constructed and validated via relevant experiments. Both results show that the surface temperature uniformity of the ESC can be improved by appropriately increasing the coolant flow rate. The impact of the distance from cooling channel to the pedestal and the height of cooling channel on the temperature uniformity of the ESC was studied particularly. The findings indicate that an extended distance yields a heightened surface temperature while simultaneously reducing temperature differences. Moreover, increasing the height leads to a reduction in ESC surface temperature but degradation in temperature uniformity. This work has the potential to significantly reduce experimental costs, enhance equipment reliability and provide valuable insights for investigating temperature uniformity mechanisms in ESCs, as well as for modeling and designing such systems.

A numerical framework for three-dimensional optimization of cooling channels in thermoplastic printed molds

The rapid progress of additive manufacturing (AM) technology in the last few decades has unlocked new potentials for the injection molding industry by enabling the quick and cost-efficient manufacture of molds with complex geometries Despite the wide literature regarding experimental investigations on AM polymer-based soft tools specifically produced to cope with low-volume production of small-sized injected parts, their lifespan remains uncertain, and premature failures are often related to poor thermal performance. This paper is devoted to the numerical study and enhancement of the heat transfer within a thermoplastic 3D printed insert with cooling channels (CCs). Experimental thermal characterization is performed on printed composite samples made of polycarbonate reinforced with carbon fibers, considered as tool material. The simulations are performed on an industrial case, thereby facilitating a comprehensive validation of the proposed framework. Parametric studies show a marked cycle time sensitivity to insert thermal conductivity within the 0.1–1.0 W/(mK) range while demonstrating negligible influence on cycle times for polymer–polymer thermal contact resistance values below 10−3m2K/W. Furthermore, to find a suitable arrangement of the CCs’ layout, we propose here an accurate optimization methodology based on 3D overset meshes in the finite element method context coupled to the augmented Lagrangian particle swarm optimizer. The optimized bent CCs’ configuration enhances part surface temperature uniformity by 42% and reduces its temperature delta by over 6∘C, all while employing 67% of the reference cycle time. The thermal shortcomings of the thermoplastic AM mold, compared to its steel counterpart, are also addressed in this work.

Three-dimensional numerical investigation of flow and heat transfer performances of novel straight microchannel heat sinks

Four-type novel single crystal diamond (SCD) straight microchannel heat sinks with different shapes (symmetrically inclined, turned symmetrically inclined, V-shaped, and X-shaped) are designed and investigated by the three-dimensional computational fluid dynamics method. These four-type microchannel heat sinks are evaluated in terms of fluid flow and heat transfer capabilities compared to the conventional rectangular straight microchannel (RSMC) heat sink. Our research indicates that the newly designed novel SCD microchannel heat sinks can enhance the heat dissipation effect in comparison to the conventional RSMC heat sink, thereby substantiating its potential for enhancing thermal management in electronic devices. Each V-shaped and X-shaped straight microchannel heat sink has a higher heat transfer capacity than the RSMC heat sink. Among the heat sinks involved in this work, the V-shaped SCD heat sink has the best surface temperature uniformity. The symmetrically inclined heat sink shows the lowest pumping power, with 14.1 % lower than that of the RSMC heat sink. The X-shaped SCD heat sink exhibits a significantly lower thermal resistance, with an 8.5 % reduction compared to the RSMC heat sink. Additionally, it demonstrates a substantially higher Nusselt number, with a 27.6 % increase relative to the RSMC heat sink. The X-shaped SCD heat sink has the highest heat transfer coefficient of up to 1.08 × 105 W/(m2·K), which is 20.4 % higher than that of RSMC heat sink. Owing to the highest performance evaluation criterion of 1.22, the X-shaped straight microchannel heat sink is the most optimal of the designed heat sinks.

Analysis and Control of the Slab Hot Ductility Behaviors Based on Nozzle Arrangement during Continuous Casting

The spray cooling efficiency is greatly influenced by the nozzle arrangement, which correlates with the water flux distribution on the blank surface in continuous casting process. Herein, the temperature‐hot ductility quantitative relation (THDR) model is established with the high‐temperature tensile test data, and the effects of nozzle arrangement on the distribution of water flux, temperature, and hot ductility are investigated. The results show that the spray distance influences the water flux in the whole spraying coverage area, while the nozzle spacing only impacts the water flux in the spray overlapping area. The distribution uniformity of the slab surface temperature gradually increases with increasing the spray distance, meanwhile, it increases first and then decreases as the nozzle spacing increases. Moreover, the hot ductility distribution is calculated using the THDR model, and the results reveal a different variation. Specifically, the sizes of the high hot ductility areas in the slab surface center and edge decrease with the spray distance increases, and the uniformity of the hot ductility distribution decreases with the increase of nozzle spacing. Combining the above research, a new strategy/approach for nozzle arrangement is proposed, which can improve the crack resistance of the slab surface.

Numerical study on side cooling technology of battery with a flat confined loop heat pipe

Thermal management plays a vital role in the widespread adoption of electric vehicles, and heat pipes are increasingly being recognized as passive cooling solutions for battery thermal management. To address the issue of poor temperature uniformity at the battery contact surface in the side cooling application of battery thermal management systems (BTMS), the use of a flat confined loop heat pipe (FCLHP) as a solution for side cooling in battery thermal management has been proposed. A numerical simulation model was developed, employing the volume of fluid (VOF) method combined with the Lee phase-change model, to investigate the effects of heating power and filling ratio on the heat transfer characteristics of FCLHP and observe the flow behavior inside the pipes. The results showed that, under steady-state conditions, the FCLHP exhibited an annular flow pattern in the condenser and a large bubble boiling regime in the evaporator, effectively mitigating the “dry-out” phenomenon observed in traditional microchannel heat pipes. With an increase in heating power from 30 W to 50 W and 70 W, the overall thermal resistance decreased by 44.39 % and 61.08 % respectively, with a diminishing reduction in total thermal resistance as the heating power increased. Furthermore, increasing the filling ratio from 50 % to 70 % and 90 % resulted in a reduction of overall thermal resistance by 47 % and 40.93 % respectively. It was observed that the thermal resistance of FCLHP decreased with increasing heating power, while with increasing filling ratio, the thermal resistance initially decreased and then increased, reaching an optimal filling ratio of 70 %. A comparative model with a traditional microchannel heat pipe was established to assess battery contact surface temperature and temperature uniformity. FCLHP exhibited lower battery contact surface temperature compared to traditional microchannel heat pipes, with a 33 % improvement in temperature uniformity. This work highlights the potential of unidirectional confined loop heat pipes in side cooling applications for batteries and provides a new design concept and theoretical foundation for the application of loop heat pipes in battery cooling.

Enhancing Surface Temperature Uniformity in a Liquid Silicone Rubber Injection Mold with Conformal Heating Channels.

To enhance the productivity and quality of optical-grade liquid silicone rubber (LSR) and an optical convex lens simultaneously, uniform vulcanization of the molding material is required. However, little has been reported on the uniform vulcanization of LSR in the heated cavity. This paper presents a conformal heating channel to enhance the temperature uniformity of the mold surface in the LSR injection molding. The curing rate of an optical convex lens was numerically investigated using Moldex3D molding simulation software. Two different sets of soft tooling inserts, injection mold inserts with conventional and conformal heating channels, were fabricated to validate the simulation results. The mold surface temperature uniformity was investigated by both numerical simulation and experiment. In particular, both a thermal camera and thermocouples were employed to measure the mold surface temperature after LSR injecting molding. It was found that the uniformity of the mold surface for LSR injection mold with the conformal heating channel was better. The average temperature of the mold surface could be predicted by the heating oil temperature according to the proposed prediction equation. The experimental results showed that the trend of the average temperature of five sensor modes was consistent with the simulation results. The error rate of the simulation results was about 8.31% based on the experimental result for the LSR injection mold with the conformal heating channel.

Structure Optimization and Cooling Performance of a Heat Sink With Discontinuous Triangular Ribs Impacted by Hybrid Nanofluid Confined Slot Jet Impingement

Abstract Due to the increased use of high heat flux electronic equipment, improving the heat transfer capacity and surface temperature uniformity of heat sinks have become a major concern. In this study, a novel confined slot jet impingement heat sink with discontinuous triangular ribs (CSJIHS-TR) in the wall impingement zone is proposed. The upper cover plate is angled to improve the ability of the heat sink to dissipate heat. A Cu-Al2O3/water hybrid nanofluid is chosen as coolant. The main structural parameters of CSJIHS-TR are optimized using multi-objective. The optimized CSJIHS-TR is investigated using the Re and φ of the hybrid nanofluid. The results show that the optimized CSJIHS-TR exhibits an improved heat transfer capacity. The optimized CSJIHS-TR achieves a 27.8% improvement in performance evaluation criterion (PEC) and a 91.0% reduction in temperature standard deviation (Tstd) compared to the confined slot jet impingement flat-plate heat sink (CSJIFPHS). As Re of the jet impingement and φ of the hybrid nanofluid increase, the heat transfer capacity and temperature uniformity of the optimized CSJIHS-TR increase; however, the flow resistance of CSJIHS-TR also increases. In addition, compared with the mononanofluid, the temperature uniformity and the heat transfer capacity of the CSJIHS-TR with hybrid nanofluid are significantly improved.

Experimental and parametric analysis of exhaust heat exchanger used in thermoelectric generator

A thermoelectric generator system consists of an exhaust heat exchanger, a thermoelectric module, and water heat exchanger. Perfect heat exchangers recover as much heat energy as possible from engine exhaust with an acceptable pressure drop. The capacity and efficiency of the heat exchanger depend on its shape, type, and material of the heat exchanger. The main objective of this research was to perform a parametric analysis of the test section of the exhaust heat exchanger by using simulation tools. The simulation results were validated with the experimental results to ensure the performance of the simulation model. The performance of the test section was measured in relation to geometry, pressure drop, temperature distribution, fluid velocity, and temperature uniformity coefficient. The test section of 60 mm × 60 mm × 180 mm (F-type) shows a higher surface temperature with an allowable pressure drop than the other types of test section without inserts. The inserts played a vital role in enhancing the surface temperature distribution and uniformity coefficient. The cone type (G-type), cone-cylinder type (H-type), and cone-cylinder-cone type (I-type) inserts were used to improve the performance of the F-type test section. The G-type and H-type test sections of the exhaust heat exchanger have a high surface temperature, high-temperature uniformity, and allowable pressure drop.

A novel battery thermal management system utilizing ultrathin thermal ground planes for prismatic Lithium-ion batteries

Temperature significantly affects the energy efficiency, safety, life and performance of a lithium-ion battery pack in electric vehicles (EVs). High overall temperature and large temperature difference of the battery in fast charging (FC) can cause degradation in performance and even catastrophic failure like a thermal runaway. Besides, the increasing energy density of battery packs limits the space for the thermal management system. Therefore, we developed an ultrathin thermal ground plane-based battery thermal management system (UTTGP-BTMS), which utilizes 0.4 mm thick novel UTTGP with air cooling to dissipate the heat from the gap between batteries. Double-layer high pores per inch (PPI) mesh and wettability modification was adopted to enhance the thermal performance of the UTTGP. Before the evaluation test of the BTMS, the heat generation rates of the batteries in 2.2C to 4C fasting charging conditions are estimated by Bernardi’s model. Then, the thermal performance of the novel battery thermal management system (BTMS) is experimentally investigated under 2.2C to 4C FC regimes at ambient temperatures from 10 °C to 50 °C. The BTMS is able to maintain a battery surface temperature of 55Ah Lithium iron phosphate (LiFeO4, LFP) batteries below 42.7 °C under a 4C charge rate, 57.3 °C at 50°C ambient temperature, respectively, and still achieve good surface temperature uniformity in all cases studied. Compared to a BTMS with copper heat spreaders, the temperature rise temperature non-uniformity, and thermal resistance are reduced by up to 23.3%, 28.4%, and 62.6%, respectively. Besides this, the effects of the pores density of the mesh in the UTTGP-BTMS are also studied by changing the sieve number of mesh, showing that a higher pore density gives better performance under large C-rates. The proposed UTTGP-BTMS showed significant performance with only submillimeter thickness in the thermoregulation of a battery pack, with the potential of being a viable solution for high-power battery thermal management in EVs.

Effects of Varying Volume Fractions of SiO2 and Al2O3 on the Performance of Concentrated Photovoltaic System

Highly concentrated triple-junction solar cells (HCTJSCs) are cells that have diverse applications for power generation. Their electrical efficiency is almost 45%, which may be increased to 50% by the end of the year 2030. Despite their overwhelming ability to generate power, their efficiency is lower when utilized in a concentrated manner, which introduces a high-temperature surge, leading to a sudden drop in output power. In this study, the efficiency of a 10 mm × 10 mm multijunction solar cell (MJSC) was increased to almost 42% under the climatic conditions in Lahore, Pakistan. Active cooling was selected, where SiO2–water- and Al2O3–water-based nanofluids with varying volume fractions, ranging from 5% to 15% by volume, were used with a 0.001 kg/s mass flow rate. In addition, two- and three-layer microchannel heat sinks (MCHSs) with squared microchannels were designed to perform thermal management. Regarding the concentration ratio, 1500 suns were considered for 15 August at noon, with 805 W/m2 and 110 W/m2 direct and indirect radiation, respectively. A complete model including a triple-junction solar cell and allied assemblies was modeled in Solidworks software, followed by temperature profile generation in steady-state thermal analyses (SSTA). Thereafter, a coupling of SSTA and Ansys Fluent was made, in combination with the thermal management of the entire model, where the temperature of the TJSC was found to be 991 °C without active cooling, resulting in a decrease in electrical output. At 0.001 kg/s, the optimum average surface temperature (44.5 °C), electrical efficiency (41.97%), and temperature uniformity (16.47 °C) were achieved in the of MJSC with SiO2–water nanofluid with three layers of MCHS at a 15% volume fraction. Furthermore, the average outlet temperature of the Al2O3–water nanofluid at all volume fractions was high, between 29.53 °C and 31.83 °C, using the two-layer configuration. For the three-layer arrangement, the input and output temperatures of the working fluid were found to be the same at 25 °C.

Composite phase change materials with carbon foam and fibre combination for efficient battery thermal management: Dual modulation roles of interfacial heat transfer

An efficient battery thermal management system (BTMS) can undoubtedly improve the performance and lifetime of lithium-ion batteries. In this study, a novel battery thermal cooling module (BCM) consisting of composite phase change material (CPCM) with carbon foam skeleton support material and a carbon fiber thermally conductive gasket (CFT) are proposed. Experimental results show that the combination of CPCM loaded on carbon foam and CFT provides significant cooling and temperature balancing benefits to the battery components, with peak temperature reductions of 25.13% and 27.83% at 1.3C and 1.5C, and maximum temperature differences for 1.5C remaining within 2.7 °C. The high enthalpy of the CPCM is the key to battery cooling. The addition of CFT reduces the interfacial thermal resistance and enhances phonon heat transfer, effectively controlling the uniformity of the battery surface temperature. Therefore, this study shows that the combined BTMS with BCM and CFT has a good temperature response and cooling effect. The BTMS achieves the dual modulation of CPCM with high enthalpy and carbon material with enhanced heat transfer, enabling intelligent and long-term stable operation. This material combination is expected to have a wide range of applications in battery materials, energy storage and other fields.

Numerical study on heat transfer characteristics of a pin–fin staggered manifold microchannel heat sink

• A pin-fin staggered manifold microchannel (PFSMMC) heat sink was designed. • The heat transfer characteristics of PFSMMC in single-phase flow were studied. • The staggered divider length-width ratio of PFSMMC was optimized. • The heat transfer characteristics of PFSMMC with different non-uniform heat sources were studied. Manifold microchannel(MMC) heat sink is an efficient thermal management solution for high heat flux electronic devices. A pin-fin staggered manifold microchannel(PFSMMC) heat sink is proposed to enhance the heat dissipation performance of the MMC heat sink in this paper. The heat transfer performance of the PFSMMC heat sink, the rectangular manifold microchannel(RMMC) and the pin-fin manifold microchannel(PFMMC) are compared by single-phase flow numerical simulation. The results show that the PFSMMC heat sink has better heat transfer capability and more uniform heating surface temperature. The effect of staggered divider length-width ratio on the heat transfer characteristics of PFSMMC heat sink is analyzed. The maximum heating surface temperature of PFSMMC heat sink has a valley with the increase of length-width ratio. The length-width ratio corresponding to the valley value of the maximum heating surface temperature is about 0.32. In addition, the heat characteristics of PFSMMC with different non-uniform heat sources are studied. The results show that the heating surface temperature uniformity deteriorates with the increase of length-width ratio, but the maximum heating surface temperature is lower at the length-width ratio of 0.32.