Unfavorable Social Comparisons Research Articles

Entrapment and perceived status in graduate students experiencing a recurrence of major depression.

The present study used a prospective design to test the role of involuntary subordination as a predictor of major depression. Involuntary subordination is a construct derived from social rank theory and has been implicated as a cause of major depression. Its most salient features include feelings of entrapment and unfavourable social comparisons (i.e., low perceived status). An initial sample of 146 graduate students underwent a diagnostic interview to confirm a history of major depression and also completed measures of entrapment and social comparison. After 16 months, participants were assessed for a recurrence of major depression. Participants who experienced a recurrence of depression had significantly higher levels of involuntary subordination (as measured by factor scores of entrapment and social comparison). A logistic regression analysis also showed that involuntary subordination predicted recurrence of depression, even when controlling for current major depression and the number of previous episodes. The present study demonstrates the advantages of adopting a social rank perspective in modeling major depression.

Better than better-than-average (or not): Elevated and depressed self-evaluations following unfavorable social comparisons

Two experiments were designed to investigate perceivers' self-evaluations when they received objectively positive above-average performance feedback but were told about another coactor who performed either moderately or much better than the participant. Results indicated that participants responded negatively to this comparison information even though they received better-than-average performance feedback. Participants were given the opportunity to evaluate themselves relative to another coactor who was described as performing at an average level. When the negative implications of the unfavorable social comparisons were relatively mild, both low and high self-esteem participants raised their self-evaluations vis-à-vis the inferior coactor who performed at an average level on the task. However, when the upward comparisons were especially unfavorable (i.e., when there was a large discrepancy between the performance level of the participant and the coactor—the comparison target), only high self-esteem participants raised their self-evaluations. Results provided evidence for active compensation and relatively passive spreading activation, supporting a schema-maintenance through compensation model (e.g., Seta & Seta, 1982, 1993; Seta, Seta, & McElroy, 2003).

Soliciting unfavourable social comparison: Effects of self-criticism

Despite the large number of studies investigating the link between depression and social comparison, little research has examined how depressive vulnerability factors, such as dependency and self-criticism, influence social comparison behavior. Participants in this study ( N = 102) were able to solicit social comparison feedback, which was favourable, unfavourable or ambiguous, after completing an ego-involving reaction time search task. Results showed that individuals high on self-criticism continued to make social comparisons more than individuals low on self-criticism, but only when comparisons were unfavourable, which diminished performance satisfaction ratings. Results provide some understanding of how self-critical individuals may actively contribute to situations that maintain their self-critical beliefs and how vulnerability factors can influence the kinds of behavioral strategies individuals adopt to deal with threats to self-worth.

SELF-ESTEEM REGULATION IN THREATENING SOCIAL COMPARISON: THE ROLES OF BELIEF IN A JUST WORLD AND SELF-EFFICACY

In this study, the author hypothesized that a high belief in a just world for Self (BJW-S), coupled with high perceived self-efficacy, would contribute to preservation of self-esteem in threatening social comparison. Participants (N=186) completed the General Self-Efficacy Scale (Walliser, Schwartzer, & Jerusalem, 1993) and the BJW-S and BJW for Others (BJWO) scales (Lipkus, Dalbert, & Siegler, 1996). They were then given either an upward (unfavorable) or downward (favorable) social comparison in the academic field. The results suggested that BJW-S (but not BJW-O) coupled with high self-efficacy contributed to maintaining self-esteem in the face of an unfavorable social comparison. However, in cases of low perceived self-efficacy, BJW-S acted in the opposite direction: when BJW-S was low, self-esteem was not affected by unfavorable social comparisons, while it decreased when BJW-S was high.

Social comparison and submissive behaviour in eating disorder patients.

Animal analogues of anorexia nervosa suggest that submissive behaviour and social defeat may be implicated in the onset of wasting diseases. Data from human sufferers of anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa are also consistent with the presence of submissive behaviours and perceived low social rank (e.g. low self-esteem, helplessness, and feelings of shame). A total of 101 patients with eating disorders completed the Submissive Behaviour Scale and the Social Comparison Rating Scale, and their responses were compared with 101 age- and sex-matched student controls. Patients with eating disorders reported significantly higher levels of submissive behaviour and a more unfavourable social comparison than did student controls. Furthermore, levels of submissive behaviour and unfavourable social comparison were significantly related to severity of eating disorder symptoms, even after taking account of depressive symptoms and other psychopathology. These preliminary results suggest that ranking theory may have some application to eating disorders. Further research is required to determine whether rank plays a specific role in eating disorders (beyond the increased rates of depression which also occur in eating disorders) and, if so, what is its precise role.

Effect of valued activity disability, social comparisons, and satisfaction with ability on depressive symptoms in rheumatoid arthritis.

This longitudinal study identified a model through which function affects the psychologicalwell-being of individuals with rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Results of hierarchical linear regression analyses (N = 436) demonstrated that greater physical impairment resulted in greater disability in valued activities and engagement in unfavorable social comparisons. All 3 factors--greater physical impairment, greater disability in valued activities, and unfavorable comparison evaluations--predicted low satisfaction with abilities. Low satisfaction with abilities was the most important predictor of higher depressive symptoms and mediated the impact of physical impairment, valued activity disability, and unfavorable comparisons on depressive symptoms. Results highlight the role of personal meaning attached to changes in functional status in predicting the long-term psychological well-being of individuals with chronic illnesses such as RA.

Anger and anger expression in relation to perceptions of social rank, entrapment and depressive symptoms

This study explored the relationship between self-report measures of anger and anger expression with those of social rank (unfavourable social comparison and submissive behaviour) and feelings of entrapment in a student population (n=197). We further investigated if the social rank/status of the target of one's anger affects anger experience and expression. Students were given Spielberger's (1988) [Spielberger, C.D. (1988) Manual for the state-trait anger expression inventory (STAXI). Odessa, FL, Psychological Assessment Resources.] STAXI measure of anger and asked to complete it in three ways. First, in the normal way, and then two further times after reading two scenarios that involved lending an important and needed book which the lender fails to return, where the lender was either an up rank/authority figure (one's tutor) or a down rank, fellow student. It was found that self-perceptions of unfavourable rank (inferior self-perceptions and submissive behaviour) and feeling trapped significantly affect anger suppression. It was also found that the rank of the target significantly affects anger expression and that people who respond angrily to criticism tend to show more down rank-anger when they are frustrated by a lower rank target and modulate their anger according to the rank of the person they are angry with.

Maintaining Positive Self-Evaluations: Reducing Attention to Diagnostic but Unfavorable Social Comparison Information When General Self-Regard Is Salient

We predicted that when (1) people are faced with diagnostic but personally challenging social comparison information in a domain, and (2) their self-regard is salient, they will be less likely to use the comparison information when judging their standing in the domain (making the judgment less inductive). Participants in Study 1 estimated their standing on risk factors for two health problems, and some did so after their self-regard was made salient. Moreover, some received information (about their peers' standing on these risk factors) that challenged participants' self-serving comparative beliefs. As expected, estimates of personal risk factor standing among high self-regard salience/comparison information participants were less correlated with similar estimates collected 2 months earlier, suggesting the estimates had become less inductive. There was also tentative evidence that, in this condition, self-esteem played a greater role in constructing these estimates. In Study 2, participants were led to believe that their comparative standing on risk factors was better than it actually was, and in this case, they were more likely to use this information when making self-judgments about their personal risk. Evidently, the extent to which people use diagnostic comparison information inductively when making self-inferences depends on the favorability of that information.

Ascribing Advantages to Social Comparison Targets

Three experiments examined how people perceive a social comparison target when a dimension important to identity is threatened and a relatively unfavorable social comparison is anticipated. All 3 experiments show that people will perceive or exaggerate advantages in a target, that make the target inappropriate for social comparison, when they anticipate a comparison with the target and are uncertain of the outcome. Experiments 2 and 3 show that reports of some target advantages are moderated by individual differences in self-esteem, such that people with low self-esteem are more likely than people with high self-esteem to perceive that a comparison target enjoys subtle, subjective advantages. Finally, Experiment 3 shows that the report of overt target advantages reflects actual perceptions on the part of the perceiver, and are not merely self-presentational claims intended to manage audience attributions.

How real is depressive realism? A question of scales and standards

Depressive versus nondepressive realism and distortion were examined by relating both the direction and magnitude of social comparisons to objective standards. Using modified selection and comparative rating paradigms, results indicated that both dysphoric and nondysphoric subjects accurately identified whether they were worse-off, better-off, or similar to comparison targets (direction). However, subjects were not realistic in terms of the magnitude of the social comparison difference between themselves and another. In general, dysphorics' errors resulted in more unfavorable social comparisons relative to nondysphorics. Furthermore, results indicated that dysphorics and nondysphorics used different processes during social comparison: Dysphorics distorted perceptions of others whereas nondysphorics adjusted self-perceptions during social comparison. Our findings suggest that even when an objective standard is used, subjects' judgments can appear to be accurate or distorted depending on whether the data are analyzed according to direction or magnitude. Furthermore, negative distortion, not realism, is characteristic of even mildly depressed subjects.

Stress and the Decision to Change Oneself: A Theoretical Model

This paper presents a model, drawn from research on stress and on self and identity, of the decision to change oneself. In this model, the impetus for intentional self-change can be provided by a stressor-chronic role strain, a life event, or both. Stressors can implicate the self by generating unfavorable reflected appraisals, threatening competent identity performance, and generating unfavorable social comparisons. Any of these effects can reduce self-efficacy, self-esteem, and sense of authenticity, thus leading to psychological distress. Whether this impetus will lead to a resolve to change oneself is hypothesized to depend on six conditioning factors: 1) the identity-relevance of the stressor, 2) whether one attributes responsibility for a stressor to oneself, 3) awareness of and access to structural supports for self-change, 4) the belief that one can effect self-change, 5) the extent to which the benefits of changing are perceived to outweigh the costs, 6) social support for self-change.

Social comparison by dysphoric and nondysphoric college students: The grass isn't always greener on the other side

We manipulated information about a comparison-other in order to resolve contrasting findings regarding social comparisons of dysphoric and nondysphoric individuals. In Study 1, subjects rated themselves and either an average college student, an average depressed college student, or an average nondepressed college student on depression-relevant, nondepression-relevant, and depression-irrelevant items. In Study 2, detailed information about one of five comparison-others ranging from very positive to very negative was presented to subjects. In both studies, dysphoric and nondysphoric subjects did not make pervasively unfavorable or favorable social comparisons; instead, social comparisons were a function of the similarity between self and other. That favorable, unfavorable, and evenhanded social comparisons could be observed for both dysphoric and nondysphoric subjects by manipulating the identity of the comparison-other suggests that mixed findings for previous social comparison research may be attributed to differences and ambiguities in the comparison-others used.

Mild Depression and Frequency of Social Comparison Behavior

Mild Depression and Frequency of Social Comparison BehaviorStephen R. Swallow and Nicholas A. KuiperStephen R. SwallowSearch for more papers by this author and Nicholas A. Kuiper1 Clarke Institute of Psychiatry and University of Toronto2 University of Western OntarioSearch for more papers by this authorPublished Online:January 2011PDFPDF PLUS ShareShare onFacebookTwitterLinkedInRedditEmail ToolsAdd to favoritesDownload CitationsTrack Citations About Previous article Next article FiguresReferencesRelatedDetails Cited byCited by1. Looks interesting: Attention allocation in depression when using a news website – An eye tracking studyOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar2. The effects of depression tendency and social comparison on adolescent self-evaluationOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar3. Online publication date: Go to citation Crossref 4. Exploring the association of social comparison with depression and anxiety: A systematic review and meta‐analysisOnline publication date: 13 April 2020. Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar5. Self-Comparison in the Digital WorldOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar6. Self-ComparisonOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar7. An EEG-based study on coherence and brain networks in mild depression cognitive processOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google ScholarDanielle Arigo and Jacqulyn Cavanaugh8. Social Perceptions Predict Change in Women's Mental Health and Health-Related Quality of Life During the First Semester of CollegeOnline publication date: 6 October 2016. Go to citation Crossref 9. Companion Versus ComparisonOnline publication date: 10 February 2016. Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar10. An Experimental Manipulation of Social Comparison in Social AnxietyOnline publication date: 29 April 2014. Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar11. An Integrative Model of the Impact of Exposure to Idealized Female Images on Adolescent Girls? Body SatisfactionOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar12. Non-treatment-related sudden gains in depression: The role of self-evaluationOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar13. Rankings, standards, and competition: Task vs. scale comparisonsOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar14. Relationships between the frequency of social comparisons and self-concept clarity, intolerance of uncertainty, anxiety, and depressionOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar15. Frequent Social Comparisons and Destructive Emotions and Behaviors: The Dark Side of Social ComparisonsOnline publication date: 14 June 2006. Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar16. Soliciting unfavourable social comparison: Effects of self-criticismOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar17. Social comparison processes in social phobiaOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar18. Investigation of Body Comparison Among Adolescent Girls1Online publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar19. Prospects, Pitfalls, and Plans: A Proactive Perspective on Social Comparison ActivityOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar20. WHEN DOWNWARD COMPARISON PRODUCES NEGATIVE AFFECT: THE SENSE OF CONTROL AS A MODERATOROnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar21. Assimilative and Contrastive Emotional Reactions to Upward and Downward Social ComparisonsOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar22. Examining Social Comparisons with the Test Selection MeasureOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar23. Comparing ComparisonsOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar24. Individual Differences in Social ComparisonOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar25. Health appraisal models in multiple sclerosisOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar26. Cognitive assessment of unipolar depression: Measuring products, processes and structuresOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar27. Social Comparison Processes under Stress: Towards an Integration of Classic and Recent PerspectivesOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar28. Social comparison by dysphoric and nondysphoric college students: The grass isn't always greener on the other sideOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar29. Schematic self-representation in emotional disorder: Conceptual and methodological considerationsOnline publication date: 28 September 2007. Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar30. Social comparison in dysphoria and nondysphoria: Differences in target similarity and specificityOnline publication date: Go to citation Crossref Google Scholar Volume 11Issue 2Jun 1992 Information© 1992 Guilford Publications Inc.PDF download