Unexpected Questions Research Articles

Unleashing creativity in STEM teacher education through scripting task pedagogy

AbstractThis paper proposes a creative pedagogical approach that aims to foster authentic STEM teacher education through incorporating scriptwriting tasks in science and mathematics courses for future secondary STEM teachers. These tasks invite teachers to create imaginary dialogues addressing specific pedagogical challenges, such as conceptual difficulties, misconceptions, or unexpected questions arising during instruction. We assert that traditional approaches to lesson planning in STEM methods courses do not provide sufficient opportunity for exploring both content and pedagogy and fostering student engagement. Hence, we propose scriptwriting‐based pedagogy as an innovative and creative way of cultivating future STEM teachers' pedagogical content knowledge. This paper showcases three examples of scriptwriting tasks implemented in secondary STEM teacher education. We elucidate the pedagogical opportunities afforded by scriptwriting and underscore its pedagogical potential for STEM teacher education.

Replay of incidentally encoded novel odors in the rat

Although events are not always known to be important when they occur, people can remember details about such incidentally encoded information using episodic memory. Sheridan et al. (2024) argued that rats replayed episodic memories of incidentally encoded information in an unexpected assessment of memory. In one task, rats reported the third-last item in an explicitly encoded list of trial-unique odors. In a second task, rats foraged in a radial maze in the absence of odors. On a critical test, rats foraged in the maze, but scented lids covered the food. Next, memory of the third-last odor was assessed. The rats correctly answered the unexpected question. Because the odors used in the critical test were the same as those used during training, automatically encoding odors for the purpose of taking an upcoming test of memory (stimulus generalization) may have been encouraged. Here, we provided an opportunity for incidental encoding of novel odors. Previously trained rats foraged in the radial maze with entirely novel odors covering the food. Next, memory of the third-last odor was assessed. The rats correctly answered the unexpected question. High accuracy when confronted with novel odors provides evidence that the rats did not automatically encode odors for the purpose of taking an upcoming test, ruling out stimulus generalization. We conclude that rats encode multiple pieces of putatively unimportant information, and later replayed a stream of novel episodic memories when that information was needed to solve an unexpected problem.

Detecting lies in investigative interviews through the analysis of response latencies and error rates to unexpected questions

In this study, we propose an approach to detect deception during investigative interviews by integrating response latency and error analysis with the unexpected question technique. Sixty participants were assigned to an honest (n = 30) or deceptive group (n = 30). The deceptive group was instructed to memorize the false biographical details of a fictitious identity. Throughout the interviews, participants were presented with a randomized sequence of control, expected, and unexpected open-ended questions about identity. Responses were audio recorded for detailed examination. Our findings indicate that deceptive participants showed markedly longer latencies and higher error rates when answering expected (requiring deception) and unexpected questions (for which premeditated deception was not possible). Longer response latencies were also observed in participants attempting deception when answering control questions (which necessitated truthful answers). Moreover, a within-subject analysis highlighted that responding to unexpected questions significantly impaired individuals’ performance compared to answering control and expected questions. Leveraging machine-learning algorithms, our approach attained a classification accuracy of 98% in distinguishing deceptive and honest participants. Additionally, a classification analysis on single response levels was conducted. Our findings underscore the effectiveness of merging response latency metrics and error rates with unexpected questioning as a robust method for identity deception detection in investigative interviews. We also discuss significant implications for enhancing interview strategies.

Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) show episodic-like memory through the incidental encoding of information.

Episodic memory describes the conscious reimagining of our memories and is often considered to be a uniquely human ability. As these phenomenological components are embedded within its definition, major issues arise when investigating the presence of episodic memory in non-human animals. Importantly, however, when we as humans recall a specific experience, we may remember details from that experience that were inconsequential to our needs, thoughts, or desires at that time. This 'incidental' information is nevertheless encoded automatically as part of the memory and is subsequently recalled within a holistic representation of the event. The incidental encoding and unexpected question paradigm represents this characteristic feature of human episodic memory and can be employed to investigate memory recall in non-human animals. However, without evidence for the associated phenomenology during recall, this type of memory is termed 'episodic-like memory'. Using this approach, we tested seven Eurasian jays (Garrulus glandarius) on their ability to use incidental visual information (associated with observed experimenter made 'caches') to solve an unexpected memory test. The birds performed above chance levels, suggesting that Eurasian jays can encode, retain, recall, and access incidental visual information within a remembered event, which is an ability indicative of episodic memory in humans.

Replay of incidentally encoded episodic memories in the rat

Although events are not always known to be important when they occur, people can remember details about such incidentally encoded information using episodic memory. Importantly, when information is explicitly encoded for use in an expected test of retention (as in most assessments in animals), it is possible that it is used to generate a planned action1,2,3; thus, the remembered action can occur without remembering the earlier episode. By contrast, when a test is unexpected, transforming information into an action plan is unlikely because the importance of the information and the nature of the test are not yet known. Thus, accurate performance in an unexpected test after incidental encoding documents episodic memory.1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8 Here, we present evidence that rats replay episodic memories of incidentally encoded information in an unexpected assessment of memory. In one task,9 rats reported the third-last item in an explicitly encoded list of trial-unique odors. In a second task,10 rats foraged in a radial maze in the absence of odors. On a critical test, rats foraged in the radial maze, but scented lids covered the food. Next, memory of the third-last odor was assessed. All participating rats correctly answered the unexpected question. These results suggest that rats encoded multiple pieces of putatively unimportant information, and later they replayed a stream of episodic memories when that information was needed to solve an unexpected problem. We propose that rats replay episodic memories of incidentally encoded information, which documents a critical aspect of human episodic memory in a non-human animal.

Griffith or de Valera? The Split of Catalan Nationalism in the Face of the Irish Civil War

AbstractCatalan nationalism had always supported Ireland in its struggle for autonomy or independence against the British Empire. The outbreak of the Irish Civil War, nevertheless, surprised Catalanism. This article discusses the difficulties of the main Catalanist political parties in that period—the Lliga Regionalista, Acció Catalana, and Estat Català—to explain the Anglo-Irish Treaty in the Catalanist milieu as well as the difficulties of differentiating dominion and federation and adopting a coherent position according to their own ideology and to Catalan internal political dynamics. Focusing on this study case, the objective of the article is to show the difficulties of stateless national movements to explain their own politics and objectives from external models. And, likewise, how the look toward an external nationalism can stop being useful or even raise unexpected questions within the movement that tries to explain itself by simplifying the contexts of others.

Cultural differences in the efficacy of unexpected questions, sketching, and timeline methods in eliciting cues to deception.

Asking unexpected questions, asking the interviewee to sketch the room, and asking the interviewee to make a timeline are techniques that have been shown to help an interviewer detect deceit. However, evidence of the efficacy of these techniques comes from studies of North American and North-West European participants, who are on average more individualistic (i.e., value individual achievements and uniqueness over group achievements) than people from other parts of the world. In two experiments involving participants with individualistic and collectivistic cultural backgrounds, we provide a more culturally diverse test of these techniques. Specifically, this study describes two experiments that investigated these interviewing techniques with people who are recent migrants to the UK. Experiment 1 used the LIWC categories "I," "we," "cognitive processes," and "social processes" as the dependent variables; Experiment 2 measured details provided in a sketch and a timeline. The results show no effects of veracity in either of these experiments, although various effects of cultural differences in the outcome variables were observed. This suggests that cues to deception may not necessarily generalize to people from different cultural backgrounds. These results highlight the importance of conducting lie detection research across different countries and cultures.

Смыслосозидающие образовательные технологии изучения знаний как моделей мира

The article substantiates the relevance and significant developmental potential of meaning-making technolo-gies in the study of scientific knowledge as models. The problem is labeled as the need to include students in the learning process as co-creators of their own thoughts and meanings in the studied scientific knowledge, presented in the content of education as a model of the world phenomena. To solve the problem, the study developed technologies for using different ways of presenting knowledge in lectures, identifying and disclosing contradictions in scientific knowledge, solving real-life situations, posing unexpected questions to the essence of the studied scientific knowledge. The results of the study, evaluated according to the criteria of adequacy to the development of thinking processes, showed that students in the conditions of meaning-making technolo-gies become co-participants in the cognitive process of creating scientific knowledge, deeply comprehend the essence of the studied knowledge, learn to think independently, create their own ideas, find individual mean-ings in scientific knowledge and objectively assess the impact of the process of learning cognition on their de-velopment.

The Role of Sediment Records in Environmental Forensic Studies: Two Examples from Italy of Research Approaches Developed to Address Responsibilities and Management Options

The coupling of scientific evidence from sediment cores with historical information represents an effective way to reconstruct and quantify recent anthropogenic impacts in transitional and marine-coastal areas. These are both key points pertaining to studies that aim at establishing the responsibility for envi ronmental pollution. Good practices for the selection of sampling sites and specific survey techniques are fundamental to understand pollution histories and dynamics, together with reliable dating methods and analytical procedures. In addition, a certain degree of flexibility and willingness to explore different research pathways is necessary, particularly when unexpected questions arise from scientific data or from requests posed by authorities in charge of preliminary investigations or court debates. In this paper, two different study cases are reviewed, and the approaches developed to tackle with specific issues are presented. Its main purpose is both to explain study paths undertaken to answer challenging scientific-legal questions and to provide examples for developing countries that present similar risks of uncontrolled industrialization. Results were used in preliminary investigations or court debates for the attribution of responsibility for environmental pollution to past or present industrial managements. In addition, they were fundamental for other studies aiming at implementing models that simulate the fate and distribution of contaminants and human exposure. In the Augusta Harbor, an integrated approach merged archive information, bathymetry, and high-resolution seismic profiles with the results of an independent tracer (hexachlorobenzene, HCB). This approach helped attribute the presence of high surficial Hg concentrations to resuspension and redistribution of deep sediments caused by dredging and maritime traffic and not to active outfalls. In the Venice Lagoon, an extensive literature search supported analytical results for the correct identification of industrial processes responsible for the contamination by polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and furans (PCDD/Fs) in the canals of the Porto Marghera Industrial Area. In addition, sedimentary profiles of PCDD/Fs in local salt marshes (“barene”) recorded well the events relative to the industrial development and management of the area reported by historical documents, confirming their potential for this kind of investigation.

The Impact on Two Practising Social Workers Who Taught Social Work Students in a University Setting

Social Work Teaching Partnerships were developed in 2015 by the Department for Education in England to foster stronger links between social work employers and educators to improve the quality of social work graduates leaving universities. The initiative resulted in practising social workers entering universities in greater numbers to teach social work students. This paper focuses on how two practicing social workers – Elizabeth and Alex - were affected by teaching social work students in a university setting. The paper presents the practitioners’ reflections of teaching and its effects through short vignettes before examining these reflections by drawing on critical social theories. Social work teaching partnerships which encourage practitioners to spend time as social work teachers in the University classroom can produce unanticipated, positive effects for these practitioners. If the university classroom is seen as a “field” (Bourdieu, 1988), it can facilitate social workers to become objects of knowledge for social work students andto themselves. Interacting with students created opportunities for Elizabeth and Alex to reflect on their social work values, knowledge base, role, and practice. By asking unexpected questions in the classroom, students problematize (Foucault, 1984) what it means to be and to practice as a social worker. Consequently, classroom interactions with social work students can lead practitioners to think about how they would like to work. Elizabeth’s and Alex’s reflections of their classroom experiences may also help to inform and strengthen workforce retention policies in social work, as their self-efficacy increased and new possibilities for social work practice emerged.

German clefts address unexpected questions

In this paper, we provide empirical evidence for Tönnis' (2021) hypothesis that German cleft sentences address relatively unexpected questions in discourse while their canonical variants address relatively expected questions. We present an experiment that measures the relative preference between the German cleft and its canonical variant in contexts that differ with respect to how expected the question is that they answer. The expectedness of the question was measured separately in a norming study. The result of the experiment supports analyses of German clefts that take discourse expectations into account when analyzing the acceptability of clefts in contrast to canonical sentences. Approaches that primarily focus on differences in exhaustivity (e.g., De Veaugh-Geiss et al. 2018) or contrast (e.g., Rochemont 1986) need to be adapted in order to account for the results.

Good Weeds? Alfarabi’s Virtuous Subversives

Why would anyone cultivate weeds? Alfarabi’s The Political Regime prompts this unexpected question. There Alfarabi uses a horticultural metaphor inherited from Plato to describe his ideal regime. His imagined polity is a garden beset by weeds, which threaten to choke the life out of the other plants. Although most of these weeds are to be eradicated for the sake of the garden that is his ideal regime, Alfarabi proposes to cultivate one variety. This kind of weed challenges the official doctrines of the regime. Since the regime is based on false teachings about the universe, such debunking questioning poses a series threat. Yet alfarabi proposes to indulge and encourage the doubts of these weeds. In this paper, we explore the reasons for Alfarabi’s strange treatment of these dissidents. We argue that Alfarabi’s proposal reflects an important disagreement with his teacher, Plato, about the extent to which an ideal model ought to be tethered to reality. Our argument helps to illuminate one of the more perplexing aspects of Alfarabi’s political thought and his relationship with Plato. Most broadly, we show that we will miss important contributions to ideal theory if we fail to appreciate that what constitutes “ideal” may vary widely.

ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE AND IN GOD'S EXISTENCE: CONNECTING PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION AND COMPUTATION

AbstractThe exploration of metaphysical arguments in the symbolic AI environment provides clarification and raises unexpected questions about notions in philosophy of religion and theology. Recent attempts to apply automatic theorem prover technology to Anselm's ontological argument have led to a simplification of the argument. This computationally discovered simplification has given rise to logical observations. The article assesses one of these observations: the application of the diagonal method (in Cantor's version) to Anselm's argument. The evaluation of the applications of theorem provers to metaphysical and theological arguments contributes to the following topics in philosophy of religion: the limits of natural theology, the relationship between religion and STEM, and theology's scientificity.

Memory: Dolphins remember incidental events

A fundamental problem in the evolution of cognition is the search for complex memory systems given the longstanding belief that complex cognition is unique to humans. Along these lines, new research suggests that bottlenose dolphins can answer unexpected questions after encoding information that was seemingly unimportant when it was encountered.

Episodic-like memory in common bottlenose dolphins

Episodic memory involves the conscious recollection of personally experienced events, which has often been argued to be a uniquely human ability.1-5 However, evidence for conscious episodic recall in humans is centered around language-based reports. With no agreed upon non-linguistic behavioral makers of consciousness,6 episodic-like memory7 therefore represents the behavioral characteristics of human episodic memory, in the absence of evidence for subjective experience during recall. Here, we provide compelling evidence for episodic-like memory in common bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus), based on the incidental encoding and unexpected question paradigm.8 This methodology aims to capture the incidental encoding characteristic of human episodic memory, in that when we recall an experience, we remember information that was trivial at the time of encoding, but was encoded automatically.9 We show that dolphins are able to use incidentally encoded spatial ("where") and social ("who") information to solve an unexpected memory task, using only a single test trial per test type, which ensured that the dolphins did not have the opportunity to semantically learn "rules" to pass the test. All participating dolphins made correct choices in both the "where" and "who" tests. These results suggest that dolphins are capable of encoding, recalling, and accessing incidental information within remembered events, which is an ability indicative of episodic memory in humans. We argue that the complex socio-ecological background of dolphins may have selected for the ability to recall both spatial and social information in an episodic-like manner.

The Importance of Self-Experience in Art for Future Generalist Teachers

The personal attitude of teachers towards the subject they teach, their professional self-efficacy and expertise are essential for their ability to deliver subject content to pupils. However, the relationship of future teachers to the subject is formed earlier in their own educational history than at university. From it derives their interest in the subject and further education. Our research has shown that students specialising in primary education and afterschool education have negative memories of art education at primary schools and they evaluate the subject and its benefits as marginal.
 In this article, we will discuss how the transformation of the didactic approach when focusing more on the creative process rather than on the product can positively affect the already established relationship of future teachers to art education, and contribute to the understanding of the objectives of art education. This research was aimed at generalist teachers (primary school) and undergraduate students who will work in school clubs or as afterschool educators. The research was segmented into three phases where in the first phase of the research, we used a qualitative approach to determine the personal attitude of students to the subject of art education. In the second phase, we used the art-based approach. In this phase, didactic procedures inspired by creative art therapy and reflective experiential education were applied to change this attitude. Art-based approach was chosen mainly because it makes it possible to monitor the changes that take place in the process and at the same time, thanks to the process, it is possible to induce these changes. This type of research generates other, unexpected questions that enable a deeper understanding of the issue. In the third phase students presented their artworks and reflected on the creative processes, as well as on the course itself, its benefits, obstacles and transferable experiences.
 The conclusion of the research is that these methods can in a very short time change the attitude to one's own creative abilities / creative self-confidence / to update and expand the perception of the subject and its goals. At the same time, a need arises for deeper professional education that would facilitate students' didactic preparation of meaningful artistic activities.

A few FERPA training perspectives: Unexpected questions, Part 3

Several years ago, I was conducting a Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act training session for student services personnel at a large state college.

PARASITE SOUP: FAITH AND SCIENCE IN THE HISTORY OF PARASITOLOGY

AbstractPopular conceptions of the relationship between science and religion often emphasize the mutual compatibility but segregation of these two authoritative domains. However, along the uncertain border between these two spheres exist many questions that appear to influence and be influenced by both scientific and theological evidence. For biologists, the gruesome details of parasite biology and behavior illuminate a shadow in nature where science and theology must intersect—did a loving creator God design parasites? Here, I explore the writings and experiments of the early fathers of parasitology who established and matured a new scientific discipline while deeply integrating their theological beliefs with their scientific investigations. I argue that modern scientists can, and often should, follow in the footsteps of our scientific forefathers and intentionally allow our theological presuppositions to inspire scientific experiments, especially in these important boundary‐crossing subjects. In doing so, I believe we may advance scientific understanding of the way reality is by asking unexpected questions and uncover deeper truths about the character of God as revealed in his intricately complex and eternally fascinating creation.

A few FERPA training perspectives: Unexpected questions, Part 2

In a recent column, we began looking at unanticipated questions you might receive from Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act training participants on topics you hadn't covered in your FERPA training. Or these questions may come out of the blue via an email, phone call, letter, or face‐to‐face conversation. An alumni director had numerous questions, and I answered three of them already in a previous column but she had one last question that I didn't have space to cover. And it applies to more than just the alumni office.

Ask a Philosopher: Answers to Your Most Important and Most Unexpected Questions

Ask a Philosopher: Answers to Your Most Important and Most Unexpected Questions