Unequal Wages Research Articles

Characteristics or Returns: Understanding Gender Pay Inequality among College Graduates in the USA

Explanations for the persistent pay disparity between similarly qualified men and women vary between women’s different and devalued work characteristics and specific processes that result in unequal wage returns to the same characteristics. This article investigates how the gender wage gap is affected by gender differences in detailed work activities among full-time, year-round, college-graduate workers in the US using decomposition analysis in the National Survey of College Graduates. Differences in men’s and women’s characteristics account for a majority of the gender wage gap. Additionally, men and women receive different returns to several characteristics: occupational composition, marriage and work activities. While men are penalized more than women for having teaching as their primary work activity, women receive lower rewards for primary work activities such as finance and computer programming. The findings suggest that even with men and women becoming more similar on several characteristics, unequal returns to those characteristics will stall progress towards equality.

Occupations and careers within organizations: Do organizations facilitate unequal wage growth?

Recent research suggests that occupations and organizations intersect during the formation of wage inequality. Using administrative data from the Netherlands, I investigate whether workers who are employed in different occupations experience unequal wage growth when staying in an organization. Results reveal that workers in professional and managerial positions realize larger wage growth than workers who work initially in lower-status occupations. After six years of staying at the same organization, predicted wage growth rates vary between 5.44% for production workers and 10.18% for technical professionals. The findings indicate that occupations compound present and future wage advantages at the organizational level. I test whether occupational sorting across organizations with differing pay quality mediates part of the occupation-based heterogeneity in wage growth. The results show that occupational sorting is marked but that sorting explains only up to around 8% of inequality in firm-internal wage growth between different occupational classes in the Dutch labor market.

Examining the Socio-economic Viewpoint of Nepalese Women Residing in Tokyo, Japan: A Study on Women's Migration to Japan

This study aims to determine the push factors and the pull factors driving Nepalese women to choose to work in Japan. It commonly occurs because of the push factor of fewer opportunities in the socio-economic situation and also because of pull factors in more developed areas. This study's general objective is to determine the socio-economic structure of female migrants from Nepal. Similarly, it also attempts to analyze the reasons, role, impact, and process of female migration, and the dynamics of foreign migration. This study adopts the qualitative design; data collection was done by interviewing 150 women and two focus group discussions (FGD) each of 10 informants in each group of 18-45 years old. The finding shows most importantly two types of factors: push and pull factors drive female migration. The finding indicates that poverty, unemployment, unequal wages, less importance of their role in the household, discrimination, poor health care, oppression, and socio-cultural barriers are the main push factors of female migration. More opportunities, equality, good education and health, high wages, technology, family and networks, safety and freedom, and empowerment through knowledge and income are the pull factors of Nepalese females.

Abuse and Harassment of Female Journalists in Karnali

This study explores the experiences of abuse and harassment faced by female journalists in the Karnali Province. In the base of concurrent research design, mixed method was adopted in this study. For quantitative method, questionnaire was developed and online survey was conducted for data collection. For that 60 respondents were selected. Like that, for qualitative study, focus group discussion and semi-structured interviews were performed. Where 3 senior female journalists were selected for the interview and 10 victims were selected for focus group discussion. This study set up within the theoretical framework of objectification and spiral of silence. Results reveal that patriarchal societal norms contribute to the objectification of female journalists, leading to a high prevalence of abuse that is often not reported due to ineffective laws, discrimination, shame, economic vulnerability, and lack of political access. The result also shows that female journalists often lack self-confidence and may bear the harassment silently or try to hide it due to the fear of social boycott. It highlights the issues of unequal wages, lack of credit for their work, and exploitation by senior journalists.

Reducing Gender Gaps in Pakistan's Labor Market: Policy Options for Enhancing Women's Economic Empowerment

This policy paper delves into the persistent gender disparities within Pakistan's labour sector, highlighting the challenges faced by women in accessing and maintaining decent employment opportunities. Despite some progress, women encounter lower labour force participation, unequal wages, and limited access to social benefits. The concentration of women in low-paying, informal sectors hampers their economic advancement and social mobility. This paper critically assesses the gender imbalance in Pakistan's labour market and proposes actionable policy alternatives to enhance women's economic empowerment. By prioritizing legislative measures, decision-makers can address the root causes of these disparities, fostering gender equality and supporting women's participation in the workforce. The implementation of effective policies is vital to not only empower women but also contribute to Pakistan's overall economic growth and development.

Unequal Wage Cyclicality: Evidence, Theory, and Implications for Labor Market Volatility

Unequal Wage Cyclicality: Evidence, Theory, and Implications for Labor Market Volatility

Health Problems and Healthcare-Seeking Practices of Workers Processing E-Waste in the Unorganized Sector in the Slums of a South Indian City: An Exploratory Study.

The precarious nature of the work in the unorganized e-waste processing sector poses a threat to workers' health by making them vulnerable to occupational injuries as well as other work-related diseases in addition to job insecurity and related issues. To systematically explore and quantify employment and working conditions along with the occupational health problems and healthcare-seeking practices of workers processing e-waste in the slums of a south Indian city. Cross-sectional study conducted in the slums of a south Indian city. We used a structured interview schedule among 248 randomly selected workers. Descriptive statistics were utilized to summarize the results. 95% CI was calculated for select proportions. Chi-square tests were used to determine statistical significance. We found a predominance of self-employment; unclear employment relationship; no paid holidays; long working hours; unequal wages; absence of work-related social security; absent workers' organization; rented units; minimal/no use of safety equipment, no concept of good ergonomic practices. The commonest occupational health concerns were injuries (17% & 41% respectively) and musculoskeletal problems (43.5%). Private/charitable clinics were the commonest source of seeking healthcare which contributed to 'irrational' practices in the form of repeated TT injections. Findings suggest that the precarious work in the unorganized e-waste processing sector could not only give rise to health problems but also make workers undermine the severity of their health problems. The non-responsiveness of the local public healthcare system compels them to rely on private and charitable clinics and pay for services that are otherwise freely available in UPHCs.

EFL Female Teachers' and Students' Experiences of Gender Discrimination in Rural Nepali Schools

Gender discrimination in schools is a serious problem in developed and developing countries including Nepal. Literature shows that gender discrimination in educational institutions, like in other workplaces, is common. My experience as a teacher and the cross-road conversation with some EFL female teachers and students triggered me to study the issue of gender discrimination in schools critically. The purpose of the study reported here was to explore EFL female teachers' and students' experiences of gender discrimination in Nepali schools. Using qualitative phenomenology design, I collected information through semi-structured interviews with eight female teachers and eight students from four schools in a district. The result showed that many female teachers and girls experienced various forms of gender-based discrimination such as psychological and emotional torture, sexual harassment, inequality in assigning roles and responsibilities, discrimination in hiring, unequal wages, disrespect, gender-based bias in grading, and lack of gender-inclusive curriculum and textbooks in schools. Similarly, the paper suggests the teachers and the stakeholders develop gender-inclusive curricula and promote positive gender socialization for gender equality in schools.

USING DOING & UNDOING GENDER STRATEGIES IN RUSSIAN WOMEN’S CAREER DEVELOPMENT

In Russia, the overall number of educated, qualified, healthy, working women is significantly higher than that of men. Nevertheless, women face unequal wage distribution and feel the income gap, rarely reach managerial positions, are not represented at high managerial levels, and are excluded from political life, which is a manifestation of gender inequality. The research was based on the concept of gender strategies of Doing & Undoing Gender Strategies.
 The aim of the study was to identify and examine gender-specific career development strategies of Russian women as a way of narrowing the gender gap. The study involved 51 women aged 22 to 60 who were asked to complete a semi-structured interview.
 The results were processed by content analysis and frequency analysis. The main results were to confirm the existence of gender strategies as a way of overcoming the gender gap in the organization and to identify and describe the specifics of Russian women’s application of gender strategies in their career development. The Doing Undoing Gender Strategy was used more frequently than the Undoing Gender Strategy. However, the scope of Undoing Gender was significantly wider and more variable. Those women who used a combination of gender strategies rated themselves as “strong performers”, emphasized high subjective satisfaction with their lives (having a family and children), and noted a successful career path, unlike those who used only one of the strategies. A combination of gender strategies can help to promote women’s careers in the best possible way and bridge the gender gap in the organization.

An account of the exporter wage gap: Wage structure and composition effects across the wage distribution

AbstractGlobalisation is a prominent driver of wage inequality in advanced economies, and wage differentials paid by the exporter vis‐à‐vis domestically oriented firms play an unmistakable role. In this paper, we measure and decompose the exporter wage gap into several explanatory components by estimating counterfactual distributions for the Spanish economy between 2006 and 2014. To measure the exporter wage gap, an extended Mincer‐type wage equation is estimated along different points of the wage distribution using Unconditional Quantile Regression. Then, we apply the technique of Fortin, Lemieux and Firpo to decompose the exporter wage gap. We find that workers earn higher wages if they work in an exporting firm and that these differences are not constant across the wage distribution: they are greater for middle and middle‐high wages and narrower at the extremes of the distribution. Moreover, the exporter wage gap increased during and after the Great Recession. Characteristics, especially those related to firm and job heterogeneity, play an important role in explaining the gap, mainly in the upper part of the wage distribution. Though in the lower part, wage structure also plays an important role. With some variation across periods, there is a consistent pattern in which occupation, sector and firm size lead to an exporter wage premium resulting in a more unequal wage distribution. These factors are partially compensated by other factors, such as the collective bargaining system.

Strategies for Overcoming the Gender Gap by Working Women (Case Study of Russian Organizations)

In the context of the global economic crisis associated with the pandemic, the gender gap index has increased, indicating increasing gender inequalities and, consequently, gender assimilation in society. Despite the fact that in Russia the total number of educated, qualified, healthy, working women is significantly higher than that of men, women face unequal wage distribution and feel the income gap, rarely reach managerial positions, are not represented at high managerial levels, and are excluded from political life. The aim of the study was to identify and examine the specifics of gendered career-building strategies by Russian women as a way of narrowing the gender gap. The following methodological approaches were used to consider gender inequalities in the organizational context: Gender in organization, Gendered organization, Doing & Undoing Gender Strategies. Key results: confirming the existence of gender strategies as a way to bridge the gender gap within an organization; identifying and describing how Russian women apply gender strategies in their career development. The “Doing Gender” strategy was used more frequently than the “Undoing Gender” strategy. However, the scope of Undoing Gender was much wider and more variable. Those women who used a combination of gender strategies (“Doing & Undoing Gender”) rated themselves as “strong players”, emphasized high subjective satisfaction with their lives (having a family and children), and noted a successful career path, unlike those who used only one of the strategies. A combination of gender strategies can help to promote women’s careers in the best possible way and bridge the gender gap in the organization.

Comparison of barriers faced by women in the Australian and Indian construction industry

ABSTRACT
 Today’s construction industry has extreme gender stratification that is still traditional in the employment of women. Even though the participation of women in the construction industry has grown, women are still considered as a minority in this field. The industry is considered as male-dominated with low participation of women. The aim of this study is to compare the challenges faced by women construction workers in two different countries: Australia and India. In this context, the study also investigated the level of participation of women in the construction industry and the common challenges faced by women that hinder their participation around the globe. The significant barriers that are faced by women construction workers around the globe are the male-dominated nature and masculine culture of the industry, work-family balance, lack of career progression, longer working hours and the complex workplace culture. When comparing the barriers faced by women in the Indian and Australian construction industry, some of them similar, whereas some are different. The barriers faced by women in Australia are gender stereotyping, lack of awareness, the rigidity of work roles, flexibility issues and changing the family structure. On the other hand, In India, women face barriers such as unequal wages, caste, cultural and religion restrictions, poor sanitary facilities, seasonal work irregularity and health hazards. The research proves that there are many barriers that counteract the participation of women in the industry and thus recommends some measures to improve their involvement.
 Keywords—Women, Construction industry, Challenges or barriers or problems, Indian and Australian construction industry, Gender discrimination

Training of Engineer-Technical Specialists: Gender Stereotypes in the Professional Sphere

The article highlights the urgency of the problem of training engineering and technical professionals, taking into account the development of technology and social challenges of the market economy. Emphasis is placed on the need to ensure gender equality in the choice of engineering professions, equal opportunities for men and women. The essence of the concepts: “gender”, “gender pedagogy”, “gender culture”, “gender socialization”, “gender stereotypes”, “gender competence”, “gender education”, “gender inequality”, “gender roles” and others are substantiated. It is determined that gender studies are of great interest for pedagogical and psychological science, as they relate to the gender-role socialization of a person, his/her personal and professional development. The results of an empirical study on gender stereotypes in occupational choice among students of Ivano-Frankivsk National Technical University of Oil and Gas are presented (110 people took part in the survey). It has been revealed that gender is not the prerogative of many young people in engineering profession choice, however, such stereotypes still exist in the society. It was proven that for future professionals in this field, gender discrimination took place in their lives (28.4% of respondents) and it is mostly female who acquire technical professions. One third of students (32%) admitted that they had faced cases of unequal wages to men and women. It has been proven that negative gender stereotypes are more subjective than objective, which gives hope for a fundamental possibility of overcoming them in the training of specialists at the Technical University.

The gender gap in wages over the life course: Evidence from a British cohort born in 1958

AbstractWe trace the gender wage gap (GWG) though a mid‐life peak for a cohort born in Britain in 1958 (National Child Development Study) to quantify their life‐course experience of equal and unequal opportunities. Taking hourly pay of full‐timers and part‐timers together, an initial gap between men and women widened substantially during childrearing years. Much, but not all, of the GWG is attributable to divergent work experience, especially in mid‐life. Education‐related differences are minor. Family formation primarily affects the GWG through gender differences in work experience. Family composition is similar for male and female workers, but it attracts opposite wage premia. The GWG, however, is not only linked to family formation. There is a sizeable GWG on labor market entry and there are some otherwise unexplained gaps between the pay of men and women who had not (and did not) become parents, belying the notion that unequal wage treatment is confined to parents.

Identification of the Determinants of Rural Workforce Migration: A Study of Construction Segments in Udupi District, Karnataka, India

The article critically examines the migration process and the manner in which it affects the livelihood of migrants. Based on a survey in Udupi district of Karnataka, it identifies the status of migrant labourers in the construction sector. It presents evidence on labour market segmentation and the resulting unequal wage distribution between migrants in this segment. Migrants, at their destination, have poor living and working conditions, lack entitlements, have low level of consumption and endure hardship. Migrant households reported higher expenditure on food and non-food consumption and temporary residential housing. Children of migrants have limited access to education in the destination place. The article maps informal practices that violate the legal provisions for these work segments.

Inclusive growth and wage inequality: The case of South African manufacturing exporters

Background: Exporting poses a challenge to the achievement of inclusive growth because there is a discernible wage inequality between exporting and non-exporting firms. The literature shows that exporting firms pay a wage premium relative to non-exporting firms, with the resultant wage gaps having widened over the years in line with expanding global trade. Aim: Limited research has been done on the distribution of wages within manufacturing exporting firms relative to non-exporting firms in South Africa and how wage differentials might contribute to wage inequality. This article disentangles these wage differentials using administrative firm-level panel data. Setting: Exporting and non-exporting firms in the South African manufacturing sector. Methods: By determining the wage differential in a firm at various percentiles, it is found that all employees (across the wage distribution) in an exporting firm earned a wage premium. This premium seemed to increase in magnitude towards the upper tail of the distribution, indicating that the wage differential did contribute to wage inequality. Results: Much of the wage inequality could be explained by the size and labour productivity of a firm. This implies that larger, more productive firms are more likely to be exporters, whereas there was little evidence that wage inequality is driven by either the type of destination country or the quality of export products. Conclusion: The findings suggest that the resultant wage inequality is related to the process of exporting or simply a firm being in the export market. Alternatively, wage inequality could be attributable to a specific type of firm (employing a specific type of person with sought-after skills) that had this (unequal) wage distribution before it started to export.

Factores condicionantes y dependencia espacial en el grado de concentración salarial en España

En los últimos años, el desigual reparto salarial en España parece preocupar cada vez más. Tratando de contribuir a la literatura existente hasta el momento, en este artículo se analizará el impacto que tienen las características personales y laborales del trabajador y las de la empresa en la distribución de los salarios. El análisis se ha llevado a cabo a partir de los últimos micro-datos oficiales disponibles sobre salarios, correspondientes a la Encuesta de Estructura Salarial del año 2010 en las 52 provincias españolas. Utilizando los últimos desarrollos de datos de paneles espaciales, se analiza la posible dependencia espacial y las diferentes alternativas de especificación. Los resultados muestran que el modelo SLX, con efectos fijos, es adecuado para explicar la desigualdad salarial.

The True State of the U.S. Economy

In a world of media short cuts and partisan bickering, it is widely accepted the U.S. economy is strong. Short cut indicators like the unemployment rate, in truth, tell us far too little. The American economy has underlying problems including weak productivity and investment, and unequal wage growth. The authors elaborate on this valuable piece.

Types of Education, Achievement and Labour Market Integration over the Life Course

Over the last 15 years, research on the effects of different types of education on labour market integration and labour market outcomes has evolved. Whereas much of the early work analysed school-to-work transition outcomes, the focus of more recent studies has shifted to the relationship between educational achievement and mid- and long-term labour market outcomes. The overarching question of this body of research asks whether the allocation to different types of education leads to different skill sets, to different employment opportunities and to jobs offering unequal wages, job autonomy or job security. However, pivotal issues related to the comparison of vocational and general types of education or upper-secondary and tertiary-level qualification remain ambiguous and are hampered by a lack of suitable data and methodological problems. The aim of this issue is to further this debate and to provide more insights into the relationship between individual and contextual factors, allocation within the educational system, educational achievement and labour market outcomes over the life course. The 12 articles collected in this issue highlight the importance of focussing on the specific features and functions of different education tracks and programs, of applying data and methods suitable for such analyses and of considering the interplay of different determinants of education outcomes, such as social origin, gender or ethnicity.

The Dialectical Identity of Eastern Germans

Germans have now been unified for thirty years, longer than they had been separated by concrete barriers, yet the Wall in their respective heads has persisted. Unequal wages, a lack of investment in structurally weak regions, and ongoing western elite domination continue to fuel Eastern perceptions of second-class citizenship, despite significant shifts in the fates of key social groups who initially saw themselves as the “winners” and losers” of unification. This article considers the dialectical identities of four groups whose collective opportunity structures have been dramatically reconfigured since 1990: eastern intellectuals and dissidents; working women and mothers; eastern youth; and middle-aged men. It argues that the two groups counted among the immediate winners of unification—dissidents and men—have traded places over the last three decades with the two strata counted among unity’s core losers, women and youth. It also testifies to fundamental, albeit rarely noted changes that have taken hold with regard to the identities of western Germans across thirty years of unification.